Pages of History

Pages of History

About 6 thousand years ago, from the beginning of the 4th century to the middle of the 3rd century before Christ the whole right-bank Ukrainian forest-steppe was occupied by tribes of so-called Trypyllya culture.

This culture got its name from the ancient settling near the village of Trypyllya in Kyiv region that was researched by Ukrainian archeologist V. Khvoika at the end of the 19th century.

Trypyllya culture is one of the brightest phenomenon of ancient history of Europe. By the level of their social-economic development Trypyllya population has almost approached the Civilization of ancient East and Egypt, however through different reasons did not switch to the statehood and invention of writing. Inhabitants of Trypyllya had developed arable field farming and cattle breeding. They grew three sorts of wheat, millet, bean cultures. Such trades as pottery, weaving, processing of stone, bone and leather started to develop.

Inhabitants of Trypyllya lived in settlements with one-, two-storeyed houses that were placed mainly in concentric circles with protective outer wall. Some of the settlements that were quite big occupied the area from 150 to 450 hectares.

Cult of fertility that inhabitants of Trypyllya associated with image of the original mother was the most widespread in their creeds.




This name was given to the system of primary pre-Christian religious creeds, views and rituals. Paganism of Eastern Slavs obtained features of idolization of nature powers, animals and plants as well as manlike creatures – mermaids, guards of home, parturient women etc.

Svaroh, Dazhdboh, Stryboh, Perun (the last one was protector of princely-armed force top authority) were the most powerful among pagan Gods and Kyiv Rus. Nationwide pagan pantheon was created during the rule of Volodymyr Svyatoslavovych in 980 in Kyiv. Perun was acknowledged as supreme God of the whole country. Besides, Dazhdboh, Khors, Shryboh, Symarhl, Mokosh were also included in the pantheon.

After adoption of Christianity in 988-969 Kyiv pantheon was destroyed. However, among people, especially in remote localities paganism has long remained popular that resulted in occurrence of spiritual phenomenon – dvovyrya (combination of Christianity with paganism or with other religions. Gradually Christianity has ousted paganism on periphery of spiritual life, although its elements are still preserved in traditional culture.




Kyiv Rus (Ancient Rus) is scientific-historical name of the state of eastern Slavs that existed from the end of he 9th century to the beginning of the 40ies of the 8th century.

The state was called Rus or Russian land in old Rus sources. It emerged in the result of unification of separate Slav tribes of Eastern Europe into unions (the 5th – 8th centuries) afterwards transformed into tribal principalities in the middle Naddnypryanshyna and on the territory populated by Ilmen slovens. Kyiv principality of Askold that was established in the middle of the 9th century became
the first stage of the development of ancient Slav statehood.
Consolidation of Eastern Slav tribes of south and north in the times of prince Oleh rule (about 882) was the beginning of formation of Old Russian state – Kyiv Rus, one of the most powerful states of Middle Ages with high level of social-economic and cultural development. Princes Ihor, Olha, Volodymyr Svyatoslavovych and Yaroslav the Wise made great contribution in its strengthening.

At the beginning of the 13th century feudal intestine wars have aggravated, the rule of Kyiv princes weakened. Principality lands have become more and more splitted. Splitted and weakened by internal contradictions and attacks of Polovtsi tribes Kyiv Rus collapsed under attacks of hordes of Batu Khan (1237-1241).




Death of great Kyiv’s prince Volodymyr that happened on July 15 1015 was a great loss for the whole country. Kyiv state that has become greatly developed through hard work and much effort made by Volodymyr Svyatoslavovych was involved into fratricidal civil war by unwise deeds of his sons.

Dynastic-political crisis was provoked by Volodymyr’s intention to make his youngest son Borys his heritor. Of course, it caused disappointment of elder brothers who following established order of succession to the throne raised with weapon in their arms to defend their right for the throne. In the course of this long and cruel struggle the youngest among Volodymyr’s sons – Borys and Glyb paid for it with their life. Initiator of the conflict , elder Svyatopolk was defeated by troops of prince Yaroslav, who came to power in Kyiv in 1019.

However, not all Rus lands were under Yaroslav’s power. His brother Mstyslav Tmutarakanskyi became a serious threat for his autocracy and in western boundaries of Kyiv state Polish king threatened . However, Yaroslav was firm and resolute . Strong spirit and will to victory lived in his feeble body (contemporaries noted his plain figure and lameness). And probably this is why Mstyslav despite his strong armed force recognized the right of elder brother for Kyiv throne. In 1026 peace was signed between two brothers which divided Rus land along the Dnieper river: Yaroslav started to reign on the right bank in Kyiv, Mstyslav on the left bank of Kyiv Rus, in Chernihiv. It was the first division of the country into the left- and right-bank parts in our thousand-year history. The civilized boundaries of Ukraine determined by historical heritage have been remaining till now having laid dichotomy of Ukrainian East and Ukrainian west.

Notwithstanding such a division of the state body of Rus, Mstyslav and Yaroslav joined their armed forces and by common efforts drove Poles out from Peremyshlya, Chervena, Belza and other Russian cities along the Western Buh and Syan rivers. And they continued to live in harmony with each other till Mstyslav’s death. Having buried his brother in Chernihiv in 1036, Yaroslav inherited his brother’s left bank part of Kyiv Rus state and became absolute ruler of Kyiv state. At that time Yaroslav’s talent of the state builder and leader of the state has revealed itself most of all. Old Rus croniclers associate with his name final defeat of Pecheneg hordes whose rapacious raids devastated southern settlements of Rus. Main battle against them took place in 1036 near Kyiv. According to croniclers’ evidences, on the place of that battle some time later the St. Sophia Cathedral was built.

Glorifying Yaroslav’ activity as a builder of Kyiv and the Kyiv Rus state , a chronicler notes: “Yaroslav laid a great town… and this town has Golden Gates”. He also laid the church of the St. Sophia God’s great wisdom, metropolitanate, then a stone church on the Golden Gates, Annunciation of the Most Holy Mother of God”. This grandiose construction was not just an episodic event but a component part of the large-scale program developed by Volodymyr to build a sacred Christian state with its capital in Kyiv and make it another Jerusalem.

The comparison of Kyiv with sacred capital Jerusalem can be found in many written chronicles and culture of the Middle Ages. But it should be noted that in the works of Old Rus writers and thinkers Jerusalem was perceived through its resemblance with Constantinople – capital of Orthodox world at that time. Constantinople was considered to be a city created by the will of God who has given his eternal protection to the city as a gift. So, it is not occasionally that architecture of Kyiv buildings constructed during Yaroslav’s rule resembles architecture of the capital of eastern Christianity. Like Byzantine basileus – who built Tsargrad, prince Yaroslav Volodymyrovych, having constructed Golden Gates and the St. Sophia Cathedral, tried to strengthen his power and greatness of the state and its capital, that was equal or rather equally matched to Constantinople (Jerusalem). These aspirations of the great Kyiv ruler were not left unnoticed by contemporaries. The biggest city of Rus of that time impressed with the strength of its defensive works, magnificent monumental buildings, in particular, temple of the St. Sophia Cathedral. Old Russian chroniclers called it the best attraction of the city and best adornment of the world and western chroniclers, which is most significant, said Kyiv was rival of Constantinople.

Yaroslav continued the cause of his father. As the idea to build “House of wisdom” – St. Sophia Cathedral belonged to Volodymyr, which was acknowledged by contemporaries. In Christianity St. Sophia’s image is closely associated with the ideals of togetherness, centralized sacral state. This is why Kyiv prince Yaroslav went down into the history as Yaroslav the Wise. The sacred state ideology state, interpreting symbol of the capital through the idea of sacred city (Kyiv) and temple (the St. Sophia Cathedral) was making it a copy of heavenly Jerusalem. This idea is vividly shown in sacral topography of the city that makes octagon on the plan. This sacral figure in Christian symbolism means “eternity” and correlates with image of heavenly Jerusalem.

Accordingly to Byzantine tradition, in which the Virgin stands out as patroness of Tsargrad-Constantinople, Old Rus annalists substantiated the idea of the Virgin being patroness of Kyiv. Thus, metropolitan Ilaryon in “A word about law and grace” indicates directly to the fact that Yaroslav, having crowned the city with church constructions has given it as a gift to the Virgin together with the citizens. Mother of God, as one of novels of Kyiv-Pechersk patericon tells, planned to move to Kyiv. “I want to construct a church for myself in Rus, in Kyiv. I will come to see it myself and I want to live in it”. Monumental figure of the Virgin Mary that proudly and majestically rises in a prayer over the picture of the scene of “holy communion of apostles” in the St. Sophia Cathedral is a visual proof to these words. The Virgin Mary was thought to be patroness of the capital of Kyiv Rus, being identified with the idea of divine purity and holiness. Honouring of the Virgin Patroness that started to spread in Kyiv from the middle of the 11th century played a decisive role in creating image of the mythologized capital of universal Orthodoxy. As most of Kyiv temples were devoted to the Mother of God, the capital of Rus-Ukraine turned into the city chosen and protected by God. It is not by accident that Kyiv is called mother of Russian cities. These words that have long become axiomatic, are usually interpreted literally: so to say, Kyiv is the forefather and first capital of the Russian unitary and indivisible state; at the best-this expression is understood as loan translation from the Greek language – translation of the word of metropolis that means capital. In reality, it’s a biblical allusion, borrowed by Old Russian chronicler from Greek chronicles in which Jerusalem is called by this combination of words. Popular paraphrase of Kyiv book lover of the middle of the 11th century was called by the need to honour sanctity of the capital of Rus that according to Ilaryon “was known all over the world”.

Perception of Kyiv as second Jerusalem, having strengthened its metropolitan significance and equal position in the family of Christian people of early medieval world has been preserved till modern times. Traditions that got established in distant historical past, maintain the glory and greatness of the present Kyiv which restoring its historical holy objects gradually returns a bit forgotten fame of the city called another Jerusalem over the Dnieper.

Volodymyr Rychka, leading researcher of the Institute of History of Ukraine of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, doctor of historical sciences, the “Uryadovyi Kurier”




Cossacks that put down quite a few heroic pages into the history of Ukrainian people emerged in the process of fight of agricultural and nomadic population in the zone of so-called Great boundary that divided European and Asian civilizations.

Analogues of living a Cossack way on Ukrainian lands are known since ancient times but the name of “Cossack” started to be used to call border guardians only from the second half of the 15th century.

In the 70ies of the 16th century the government of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth creates the first Cossack register to provide for number of rights and privileges guaranteed to registered Cossacks. Cossacks were formed from representatives of different social states: lower middle class citizens, boyards, nobility, peasantry the majority of which used to join Cossacks in the times of social disturbances.

In the course of liberation war of the 17th century Cossacks through their first leaders came to power in the newly-created Hetman’s state. Within the Russian state Cossacks by the end of the 18th century, in fact, has transformed into regular units of Russian army and serfs. Considerable part of Ukrainian Cossacks moved to Kuban.




Big and uneasy mission fell to Cossack’s lot – to defend native land from “unorthodoxes” – Turks and Tatars, to liberate from captivity their countrymen, to stand against attacks of enemy.

They made their fortifications- abatises (Sich) of sharpened piles in which they kept their provisions, weapon, gave refuge to people who fled away from assailants. Such fortifications were constructed over the Dnieper rapids, on the islands among osiers and canes, where enemies could not get to. Main Cossack fortress – Sich appeared here – on the island of Khortytsya, the founder of which was Dmytro Vyshnyvetskyi in the middle of the 1550ies who was praised in folk ballads, legendary hero Baida.

Besides Khortytsya, main Cossack Sich in different times was arranged on the islands of Tomakyvtsy, Bazavlutsy, Chortomlyku, Mykytyn Roz. As all of them were situated over the rapids, Sich received a name Zaporizhska. It was destined to to play decisive role in the history of Ukraine during the 16th-17th century.It was a place of location of both staff forces, capital of Cossack republic and place of meeting of fighters for Ukraine’s freedom. Sich was a place to give hope for all destitute so people called it “Sich-mother”. Its glory will live for ever.


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In January 1648 grandiose, never seen before national uprising broke out in Ukraine that gradually spread through all the territory, subjected to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and developed into a real war that continued for many years.

It aimed to overthrow Poland’s power, to liberate people from oppression and exploitation, to defend native language, belief, culture, customs. Beginning of the war (1648-1657) was characterized with the big scale of nationally-liberation and social fight. Insurgents got outstanding victories at Zhovty Vody, Korsun, Pylyavtsy in 1648.
There was a lot of different things in that war –glorious victories and painful defeats. Ukrainian people paid for “free life ”, belief of forefathers by tens of thousands deaths of its best representatives. This violent storm destroyed numerous cities and villages of Ukraine, made its residents homeless. But all the same hard times of fight for national liberation became a glorious memory of the nation.

Legendary names of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi, Maksym Kryvonos, Ivan Bohun, Danyl Nechay, other fighters of Ukrainian national awakening are praised in songs and ballads.




Cossacks sailed to the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea from Zaporizhska Sich on battle vessels called “chaikas”.

At the beginning of the 17th century residents of Zaporizhia made quite a few marches to the Crimean khanate and Turkey, devastating even suburbs of Istanbul under the leadership of Petro Sahaidachnyi. In 1616 Cossacks conquered strongly fortified Kafa, main slavery market of the Crimea, having liberated dozens of enslaved Ukrainian.




Fight at Zhovty Vody on May 5-6 1648 became the first great battle of liberation war under leadership of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi.

When news about rising in Zaporizhia under the leadership of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi reached Polish commanders M. Pototskyi and M. Kalynovskyi, they sent there six-thousand detachment led by son of M. Pototskyi – Stefan and 4-5 thousand registered Cossacks under the command of Cossack captain Barabash and Karaimovych.

On the river of Zhovty Vody the army of Khmelnytskyi, having met Polish army surrounded it. At the same time rebellious registered Cossacks, having killed Barabash and Karaimovych, joined insurgent army. At night on May 6 Poles made an attempt to retreat in order to unite with main forces but near the tract Knyazhy Bairaky Polish army was ambushed and suffered total defeat. About 3 thousand Poles including deadly wounded S. Pototskyi were taken prisoners. Victory in Zhovty Vody gave Cossacks assurance in their power and hope for success of the liberation war that started in Ukraine.




Battle at Korsun became one of the brightest victories of insurgent army over Polish Army at the beginning of the liberation war.

Crown hetman of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth M. Pototskyi, having learnt about defeat of his army at Zhovty Vody where his son Stephan was taken prisoner, arrived on May 10 1648 with main forces from Cherkasy to Korsun and arranged a camp near the city. Bohdan Khmelnytskyi went there as well with his troops. Resorting to trick (one of Cossacks was sent to enemy with disinformation), he lured Polish forces out of well-fortified camp.

In the tract of Horokhova Dybrova Poles were ambushed. Khmelnytskyi with Cossack horse troops and Tatar detachments took in the rear of the enemy and from flanks Polish forces were attacked by Cossacks under the leadership of M. Kryvonos. Poles suffered destructive defeat. M. Pototskyi and other commanders were taken prisoners. Insurgents have got a lot of weapon, stores, other property. Korsun battle became manifestation of unprecedentedly large scale liberation war of Ukrainian people.




Battle at small town of Pylyavtsy in Podillya between Cossack-Tatar forces headed by Bohdan Khmelnytskyi and Polish army led by hetman M. Pototskyi became heroic page of liberation war of Ukrainian people in the middle of the 17th century.

Battle actions developed on the bank of the Ikva river on September 21-23 1648. Forces of sides were approximately equal – about 100 thousand Cossacks and 5 thousand Tatars against 80-90 thousand Poles.

Central point of the battle was a dam across the river. During the first day of the battle it passed from hands to hands twice but Poles succeeded to take it from the third attempt. However, on September 23 Khmelnytskyi made a strong attack at the dam, took it and started to attack Polish positions. In the second half of the day advantage of Ukrainian army became quite obvious , its subdivisions created a real threat of breaking through to the rear. In the evening part of Polish forces secretly left battle field which caused panic among the Polish army . Victory of Ukrainian army in Pylyavtsy battle opened way for its iberation march to western Ukrainian lands.




This is what fighters against feudal and national oppression in Galicia, Zakarpattya and Bukovyna were called. This name, as scientists consider, originates from Latin word “oppressor” (destructor, oppressor) and it is associated with liberators who destroyed and oppressed nobility, tenantry, rich men, Catholic priests and monks.

First opryshoks of Galician origin are mentioned in the document of 1529. Their camps were mainly placed in the Carpathians and were supported by local population.

Movement of opryshoks gained great scale during the years of liberation war when they attacked magnate and even royal castles, assisting Cossacks of Bohdan Khmelnytskyi. Thus, in 1653 two-thousand detachment of opryshoks under the leadership of Kharachok fought shoulder to shoulder against Polish-nobility forces with regiments of Ukrainian hetman. They joined their efforts with haydamaks in the 18th century, especially during big risings that occupied right-bank and western Ukraine.

Opryshky movwment (national-liberation fight) was ruining the foundation of serfage regime, assisted fight of Ukrainian people for social and national liberation.




Polish nobility contemptuously called participants of Ukrainian national-liberation movement that developed at the beginning of the 18th century in Volyn and Podillya and reached Kyiv region in the middle of the century Haydamaks (from Turkish “haide” make self-will, trouble).

Haydamak movement continued till the end of the 60ies of the 18th century and finally developed into grandiose rising that went down into the history as “Koliivshchyna”.

Not justifying cruel actions of haydamaks (to be frank, their opponents behaved not in a better way ), modern historiography sees in them first of all fighters against social oppression and cultural-national enslavement, against the Union, and forced conversion of Urainian people in Catholic faith.

Haydamak detachments involved all peasantry and poor Zaporozhian Cossacks, lower middle class citizen – craftsmen who were deprived of civil rights. They developed their activity in spring, destroying and incinerating landlord’s farmsteads, Polish churches, attacking creditors and pub keepers – everyone who helped magnates and nobility of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to exploit and rob Ukrainian people.




As it is known, Old Russian chronicles consisted of written by different croniclers annual articles and were summarized by editors or authors.

In a contrast to them Cossack chronicles are integral author’s works created in the second half of the 17th-18th century by representatives of educated Cossacks leading officers. They belong to the most important sources of history of Ukraine, Russia, Moldova and neighbouring states. Main attention in them is focused on national-liberation and social movements of Ukrainian people, liberation war under the leadership of B. Khmelnytskyi. Main Cossack chronicles are valuable literary-artistic memories and are remarkable for authenticity of events coverage and deep generalizations.

The most known and most valuable among them are chronicles created by Samovydets, Hrabyanka, Velychko. These and some other Cossack chronicles are based on numerous documents and recollections of contemporaries, and give researchers invaluable chance to follow course of liberation war in details, as well as development of class and liberation movements in Ukraine in the 17th – beginning of the 18th century.




This is what the violent and desperate rising of Haydamaks on the right-bank left Ukraine was called that started in 1768 against national and social oppression, against oppression of local and Polish magnates, Catholic and Uniate priesthood, extortion, cruel treatments of tenantry, pub keepers and moneylenders. Most of historians state that “Kolyivshchyna” and “kolyi” as insurgents named themselves come from the Ukrainian “kol” (which means stake) that was their main weapon, and “koloty” (to stab).

Insurgents were headed Maksym Zalyznyak who came from Zaporizhia poor peasantry and proclaimed himself a colonel in May 1768. At the beginning of June haydamaks took Cherkasy, Korsun, Kaniv, Bohuslav and other cities. Rising reached Kyiv region, Podillya, spread to Galicia and Volyn. Ivan Honta became the closest associate of Zalyznyak.

Polish government unable to suppress the uprising appealed for help to Catherine the |Second. The ruling clique of Russia to prevent spreading of national rising to the left-bank Ukraine and following class solidarity ordered the Russian tsar army to take part in the military actions to defeat insurgents.




At the beginning of June 1775 by the order of Catherina the Second troops headed by lieutenant general P. Tekeli and the Don Cossacks – overall 100 thousand people departed to capture Pydpylna (New) Sich and put an end “liberty of Zaporizhia army ”.

They met no resistance as Zaporizhia Cossacks could not ever think that the troops were sent to attack them. Well the war between Russia and Turkey has just finished and Zaporizhia Cossacks who took part in it became famous for their courage and fighting skills.

Most of ordinary Cossacks who were in Sich at that time intended to start fighting with the tsar troops, although armed resistance could finish fatally for Zaporizhia Cossacks as forces were not equal (garrison of Sich numbered up to 3 thousand Cossacks).

First sergeant Rada was held with participation of priesthood that after prolonged discussion decided to surrender “not to shed Christians’ blood”. Cossack camp’s first sergeant agreed to go to Tekeli. Four companies of infantry occupied Kysh, blocked its garrison.

Next day on June 5 by the order of Tekeli from Sich depositories cannons, ammunitions, valuables of military treasure regalias, flags to the field were taken and carried out. All of it as part of archives was sent to St. Petersburg.

Under authority of tsar military authorities, all constructions in Sich except fortifications were destroyed, place where cannons were located was filled up with sand.

Part of first sergeants (and the highest Sich - all) was subjected to repression. Commander of Cossack camp Petro Kalnyshevskyi was exiled to Solovky and military judge P. Holovatyi – to Tobolsk, military secretary I. Hloba – to Turukhan monasteries from where they never returned.

It was the end not only of the last capital of Zaporizhia – Pydpylnenska Sich. In fact, Zaporizhska Sich was liquidated – Cossack republic was abolished which was informed by Catherine the Second in her manifesto. Russian empire finally destroyed Ukrainian state regime.





After New Sich was destroyed by tsar troops and Zaporozhian Cossack troops were liquidated in June 1775 in the lower reaches of the Danube river new military-state organization of former Zaporozhian Cossacks appeared.

Zaporozhian Cossacks settled at first on the left bank and then Turkish administration removed them to the right bank. Zadunay Cossacks preserved customs and regime of Zaporozhia.

Cossacks were obliged to do frontier service, participate in punitive marches of Turkish troops against Bulgarians, Serbians, Greeks who fought for their independence. Not wishing to put up with it, part of Cossacks moved to Kuban, having joined the the Black Sea Cossack troops. At the beginning of Turkish-Russian war of 1828-1829 Istanbul ordered Zadunay Cossacks to fight against Russia. On May 18 1828-1829 1500 Cossacks led by commander of Cossack camp I. Hladkyi supported the side of Russian army. In response to it Turks destroyed Zadunay Sich and killed Cossacks who stayed there. When the war was over the tsar government sent Cossacks to settle on the coast of the Sea of Azov, who afterwards made the Azov Cossack troops.




Magdeburg Rights (or German) rights was formed in the 13th century in German city of Magdeburg and then spread in Ukrainian cities.

It established order of activity of bodies of local self-government, vested interests of urban states, departments, Court, merchant unions, regulated question of wardship, good arrangement, cities, trade, inheritance as well as taxation of population, public order etc.

It came to Ukraine together with German colonists: prince Danylo Romanovych and his successors secured colonists privileges to use own right and to have own judicial-administrative institutions. With transition of Ukrainian lands under the rule of Lithuania and Poland it was given by great princes of kings.

Introduction of Magdeburg Rights in Ukraine assisted transformation of city population into separate social state and cities’ development. Sources of Magdeburg Rights were volumes in Polish translated from the German and Latin languages. In the second half of the 17th – 18th centuries the document was translated into Ukrainian.




The Community (Brotherhood) of Saints Cyril and Methodius is a secret anti-serfdom organization that acted from the end of 1845 to March of 1847 in Kyiv.

It was named in honour of Slavic enlighteners, preachers of Orthodox Christian religion of the 9th century St. Cyril and Methodius. Founders of the community were professor of the Kyiv University M. Kostomarov, official of the office of governor-general M. Hulak and teacher of the Poltava military college E. Bylozerskyi. They stood out for consolidation of Slavic people with the capital in Kyiv.

Taras Shevchenko became a member of the community in April 1846. Together with Hulak he headed revolutionary wing of the Brotherhood of Saints Cyril and Methodius and initiated to introduce to the program documents of the organization the idea of overthrowing autocracy, organization of national uprising against serfdom. Young members of the community – students of the Kyiv University supported Shevchenko. By denunciation of one of the students (at the beginning of 1847) all participants of the community were imprisoned and exiled and only Aleksander the Second amnestied them in 1855.




Half-legal organizations of Ukrainian intelligentsia of cultural and social-political orientation that acted in the second half of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries were called communities. They emerged on the wave of revival of national movement.

Communities didn’t have established programs and had no clear organizational structure, they only united most active nationally conscious intelligentsia and students.

From 1859 communities carried out their activity in Kyiv, Poltava, soon in Kharkiv, Odesa, Chernihiv, Yelisavethrad basing on consolidation of efforts in cultural- enlightenment sphere, establishment of Sunday schools with the Ukrainian language of teaching and publication of popular brochures. Some of their members participated in revolutionary movement. Active members of the community in Kyiv were V. Antonovych, F. Vovk, M. Drahomanov, M. Lysenko, in Odesa – V. Malovanyi, L. Smolenskyi, in Yelisavethrad –the Tobylevyches brothers and other persons. At the beginning of the 20th century “Prosvitas” (enlightenment groups ) were established on the initiative of members of the communities.




At the end of April 1861 the permission for reburial of Shevchenko’s ashes in Ukraine was received.

On Smolensk cemetery in Petersburg according to Cossacks tradition his coffin was covered with red nankeen and mourning procession moved through the city to the local railway station. Historian Oleksandr Lazarevsky and Hrihoriy Chestakhyvskyi volunteered to accompany the coffin.

On April 27 they arrived to Moscow where the coffin was placed in the Tykhonyv church. Residents of Moscow went to say the last farewell to Kobzar. Then his coffin was carried by horses. “On the way crowd of people was growing like a snowball”, - N. Nykoladze, associate of Chernyshevsky, wrote.

In the evening on May 6 procession arrived to Kyiv, to Rozhdestvenska (Christmas) church. In the morning people carried the coffin holding it high in their arms to a steamboat that sailed to Kaniv where the farewell ceremony took place in Dormition Cathedral. On May 10 “the coffin was carried out, put down on Cossack waggon, covered with red nankeen. Instead of oxen ordinary people harness themselves and “children” carried their “father” who finally returned from distant land to his home”, - H. Chestakhyvskyi recollected.




The Central Rada is a representative body of Ukrainian democracy that was established on the wave of revolutionary events and led national-liberation movement in Ukrainian provinces.

Its establishment was initiated by the Community of Ukrainian gradualists. It used recommendations of the provisional government to create in provinces Radas of united public organizations as representative bodies of power to form Rada by this sample not of city or provincial but of All-Ukrainian scale. On March 4 1917, that is simultaneously with Kyiv Rada of united public organizations, the Ukrainian Central Rada was formed. Besides leading figures of the Community of Ukrainian gradualists, representatives of orthodox priesthood, Ukrainian social-democrats, cultural-educational, cooperative, military, student’s and other organizations, communities, circles, scientific societies became its members. The Central Rada at once turned into a influential factor of political life of Ukraine. Leader of All-Ukrainian movement for national revival professor M. Hrushevskyi in his absence.
Was elected Head of the Central Rada .
Prosvita (enlightenment)

Prosvitas (enlightenment) are amateur national-cultural, economic and educational Ukrainian communities that existed both in Eastern and Western Ukraine in 1868-1939.

Despite their common name essential differences existed between Naddnypryanskyi and Galician “Prosvitas”. Galician “Prosvita” focused their activity on cultural and economic consolidation of Ukrainians to oppose Polish expansion. Having appeared during revolutions of 1905-1907, the activity of “Prosvita” in Haddnypryanshchyna along with national orientation was characterized with strong internationalism ideas, especially in such multinational cities as Odesa and Mykolaiv.

By 1923 Naddnypryansky “Posvita” under the pressure of power stopped their activity. In 1939 the same happened to Galician enlightenment communities. But “Prosvita” during its existence had been able to raise cultural-educational and spiritual level of Ukrainian people through books publishing, lecture work, exhibitions, ethnographical holidays, school and library activity etc.




The Shevchenko Scientific Society was established in 1892 at the costs of progressive Ukrainian community of Lviv and other cities of Western Ukraine.

It was created as a prototype of the academy of science with historical philosophical, philological and mathematically-natural-medical sections and subsections, with editing of scientific “notes of the Shevchenko Scientific Society”, collections, periodicals, with full and honorary members. Simultaneously with scientific-research activity the Shevchenko Scientific Society carried out cultural-enlightening work among population.

The Shevchenko Scientific Society united specialists in different spheres of knowledge, writers, cultural and state figures of Western Ukraine as well as the Ukrainian Russian Socialist Republic, Berlin, Budapest, Vienna, Leningrad, Moscow, Prague, other scientific centres of the world. In different periods of time its members were V. Vernadskyi, M. Hrushevskyi, A. Krymskyi, I. Franko and many other outstanding figures. At the end of the 30ies the Shevchenko Scientific Society numbered 300 members.

In January of 1940 the Shevchenko Scientific Society integrated into scientific structures of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian Russian Socialist Republic and stopped its activity as the society. Its activity continued in emigration. The society renewed its activity in Ukraine in 1989.




Period after Stalin’s death was characterized by certain liberalization of social-political life. At this time public movement for renewal of the Soviet society is gaining popularity most having increased in scope at the beginning of 1960ies and its participants started to be called “sixtiers.”
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This movement united mainly creative youth who was involved in public-political life and cultural revival most actively in the period of Stalin’s cult criticism and Khrushchov thaw. Generation of people with anti-totalitarian way of thinking has been raised.

“The sixtiers” were seeking new forms of creative activity, new understanding of national experience within the totalitarian regime. They started to revise Marxist canons and come out to fight for renewal of the society on the basis of common global values.
The most popular among “the sixtiers” became names of Vasyl Symonenko, Mykola Vynhranovskyi, Lyna Kostenko, Ivan Dzyuba, Vasyl Stus, Alla Horska, Ivan Hel and others. Some time later many “of the sixtiers” became active participants in dissident movement.