Dassault Rafale

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 This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in the French Wikipedia. (August 2012)
Rafale
Pale gray jet aircraft flying towards left of camera. Smoke trial the aircraft's wing tips
Rafale B at the Paris Air Show 2007
Role Multirole fighter aircraft
National origin France
Manufacturer Dassault Aviation
First flight 4 July 1986
Introduction 4 December 2000
Status In service
Primary users French Air Force
Indian Air Force
French Navy
Produced 1986–
Number built 101 as of December 2011
Program cost €39.6 billion (1 January 2008[1])
Unit cost Rafale C: €64 million, US$82.3 million (flyaway cost, 2008)[1]
Rafale M: €70 million, US$90.5 million (flyaway cost, 2008)[1]
Unit cost: €64 million US$90.5 million (dependent on type/variant and can be as high as €90 millionUS$124 million, 2010)[2]

The Dassault Rafale (French pronunciation: ​[ʁafal], squall)[3] is a French twin-engine delta-wing fighter aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation. Dassault described the Rafale as being an omnirole fighter with semi-stealth capabilities.[4] The Rafale is a multirole combat aircraft; capable of simultaneously undertaking air supremacy, interdiction, reconnaissance, and the airborne nuclear deterrent missions.

In the late 1970s, the French Air Force and Navy were seeking to replace and consolidate their current fleets of aircraft. In order to reduce development costs and boost prospective sales, France entered into an arrangement with four other European nations to produce an agile aerial fighter, but subsequent disagreements over workshare and differing requirements led to France pursuing their own development program. Dassault built a technology demonstrator which first flew in July 1986, however post-Cold War budget cuts and changes in priorities contributed to significant delays.

Introduced in 2000, the Rafale is being produced for both the French Air Force and for carrier-based operations in the French Navy. It has also been marketed for export to several countries, including selection by the Indian Air Force.[5] The Rafale has been used in combat over Afghanistan and Libya; features such as the SPECTRA integrated defensive aids system have been crucial advantages in these theatres. Several upgrades to the radar, engines, and avionics of the Rafale are planned to be introduced in the near-future.

Contents

[edit] Development

[edit] Origins

Logo with black stylised word "Rafale" against white background
The logo of the Dassault Rafale programme

In the mid-1970s, both the French Air Force (Armée de l'Air) and Navy (Marine nationale) had requirements for a new generation of fighters to replace those in or about to enter service.[6] Because their requirements were similar, and to reduce cost, both departments issued a common request for proposal.[7] In 1979 Dassault joined the Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm/British Aerospace "European Collaborative Fighter" project which was named the "European Combat Aircraft".[8] This project collapsed in 1981 but in 1983 the "Future European Fighter Aircraft" (FEFA) programme was initiated. Italy, Spain, West Germany, France and the United Kingdom agreed to jointly develop a new fighter, although the latter three had their own aircraft developments.[9]

A number of factors led to the eventual split between France and the four countries. France wanted Dassault to lead the project; moreover, France demanded a swing-role fighter that was lighter than a design desired by the other four nations.[6] For these reasons, France and the other nations split in 1985, after which France committed to its own design.[10][11] These nations would develop what would later be named the Eurofighter Typhoon.[12][13]

[edit] Technology demonstrator

In France, the government proceeded with its own programme. The French Ministry of Defense required an aircraft capable of air-to-air and air-to-ground, all-day and adverse weather operations. It would perform roles previously filled by an assortment of dedicated platforms, including the Jaguar, F-8P Crusader, Mirage F1C/R/T, Mirage 2000/N, Etendard IVPM and Super Etendard.[6] In June 1982, Dassault announced it was developing a successor to the Mirage 2000.[9] On 13 April 1983, France awarded Dassault a contract for two Avion de Combat eXpérimental (ACX) demonstrators, later revised down to one.

The Dassault Rafale A technology demonstrator in 2006

The resultant Rafale A technology demonstrator was a large-delta winged fighter, with all-moving foreplanes, embodying fly-by-wire (FBW) flight control system.[6] The technology demonstrator was rolled out in December 1985 in Saint-Cloud, making its maiden flight on 4 July 1986 from Istres.[6] It was initially powered by General Electric F404-GE-400 afterburning turbofans found on the F-18 Hornet, instead of the Snecma M88, to reduce the risk that often comes with a first flight, and since the M88 was not considered sufficiently mature for the initial trials programme.[3][6] It was not until May 1990 when the M88 replaced the port F404 in the demonstrator; thereafter, it reached Mach 1.4 and demonstrated supercruise. After 865 flights, Rafale A was retired in January 1994.[6]

With the fall of the Berlin Wall and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union, signalling the end of the Cold War, the French government considerably reduced the budget allocated to defence. The French Air Force was reorganised, the Mirage 5F was completely phased out and a total of 55 Mirage F1Cs were upgraded to a tactical fighter configuration, redesignated as Mirage F1CT. The Rafale's development was stalled by a lack of available funds, prolonging the development considerably.[6]

[edit] Testing

To meet the various roles expected of the new aircraft, the Air Force required two variants: the single-seat "Rafale C", with C standing for chasseur (fighter), and the "Rafale B", with B standing for biplace (two-seater). The prototype of the C model (designated C01) completed its first flight on 19 May 1991, signalling the start of a test programme which primarily aims to expand the flight envelope, test the M88-2 engines and, later, man/machine interface and weapons.[14] Due to budget constraints, the second single-seat prototype was never built.[15]

The C01 differed significantly from the Rafale A. Although superficially identical to the technology demonstrator, it was smaller and more stealthy through the coating the canopy with gold, re-designing the fuselage-fin joint, and the addition of radar-absorbent materials (RAM). This aircraft also saw extensive application of composite and other materials, which both reduce the radar cross-section (RCS) and weight. Moreover, Dassault opted to reject variable engine inlets and a dedicated air brake, which lessens maintenance loads and saves weight.[16] The B01, the only prototype of the two-seat B variant, made its maiden flight on 30 April 1993.[14] It is 350 kilograms (772 lb) heavier than the single-seater, but carries 400 litres (106 US gal) less fuel. The aircraft was used for weapon-systems testing. Later it saw validation roles regarding weapon separation and, specifically, the carriage of heavy loads. The aircraft normally flies with 2,000-litre (528 USgal) external tanks, two Apache/Scalp cruise missiles, in addition to four air-to-air missiles[17]

A French Navy Rafale M performing a touch-and-go landing on the deck of the carrier USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74).

The Navy, meanwhile, sought a carrier-based aircraft to supersede its fleet of ageing Etendard IPVMs, F-8P Crusaders and Super Etendard Modernisés. While the navy initially carried out a modernising program of the existing Crusaders, in the long term, the requirement was met with the Rafale M, a navalised variant. The M01, the naval prototype, first flew on 12 December 1991, followed by the second on 8 November 1993.[14][18] As France had no land-based catapult test facility, catapult trials were initially carried out between during July–August  1992 and early the following year, at NAS Lakehurst in New Jersey. The aircraft then carried out trials aboard the carrier FS Foch in April 1993. At the controls of Dassault's chief test pilot, Yves Kerhervé, M02 made its maiden flight in November that year, while the first prototype completed the third round of testing at Lakehurst in November and December 1993.[19]

The Rafale M features a greatly reinforced undercarriage to cope with the additional stresses of naval landings, an arrestor hook, and "jump strut" nosewheel, which only extends during short takeoffs, including catapult launches.[14] It also features a built-in ladder, carrier-based microwave landing system, and the new fin-tip Telemir system for syncing the inertial navigation system to external equipment.[17] Altogether, the naval modifications of the Rafale M increased its weight, it is 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) heavier than other variants.[19] The Rafale M retains about 95% commonality with Air Force variants including,[20] although unusual for a carrier-borne aircraft, being unable to fold its multi-spar wings for reducing storage space. The size constraints were eased by the introduction of the Charles de Gaulle, France's nuclear-powered carrier, which was considerably larger than previous carriers, FS Foch and Clemenceau.[17]

[edit] Into production

Initially, the Rafale B was to be just a trainer, but the Gulf War and Kosovo War showed that a second crew member is invaluable on strike and reconnaissance missions; thus, in 1991 the Air Force switched its preferences towards the two-seater, announcing that 60% of the Rafale fleet would be made up of the variant.[21] The AdA originally envisaged taking delivery of 250 Rafales, but this was revised downwards to 234 aircraft, made up of 95 "A" and 139 "B" models";[18][22] this was further reduced to 212 aircraft.[21] The Navy, meanwhile, had 60 Rafales on order, down from 86 due to budget cuts.[18][21] Of the 60, 25 would be M single-seaters and 35 two-seat Ns.[22]

Landscape photograph of two jet parked side-by-side on carrier deck, with faint white line running down the middle.
Two Rafales on the deck of the Charles de Gaulle by sunrise.

Production of the first aircraft series formally started in December 1992, but was suspended in November 1995 due to political and economic uncertainty. Production only resumed in January 1997 after the Ministry of Defense and Dassault agreed on a 48-aircraft (28 firm and 20 options) production run with delivery between 2002 and 2007.[21] A further order of 59 F-3 Rafales was announced in December 2004.[23] As of 2011, a combined total of 180 Rafales has been ordered by France.[24]

Deliveries of the Rafale's naval version was a high priority to replace the Navy's considerably-aged F-8E(FN) Crusaders; the first production model for the French Navy undertook its first flight on 7 July 1999.[25] Their first naval deployment was in 2002 on board the Charles de Gaulle; by March 2002, the aircraft carrier was stationed in the Gulf of Oman, where its compliment of Rafales undertook training operations.[26] In December 2004, the Armée de l'Air received its first three F2 standard Rafale Bs at the Centre d'Expériences Aériennes Militaires (CEAM) at Mont-de-Marsan, where they were tasked to undertake operational evaluation and pilot conversion training.[18]

The total programme cost, as of 2010, is around €40.690 billion, which translates to a unit programme cost of approximately €142.3 million. The unit flyaway price as of 2010 is €101.1 million for the F3+ version.[1]

[edit] Design

[edit] Overview

Rafale in a high-angle take off, showing the delta wing and canards in profile.

The Rafale was developed as a modern jet fighter with a very high level of agility; Dassault chose to combine a delta wing with active close-coupled canard to maximize maneuverability, the aircraft is capable of withstanding 9 g or −3.6 g. The Rafale is an aerodynamically unstable aircraft, thus digital fly-by-wire flight controls are employed to artificially enforce and maintain stability.[27] The aircraft's canards also act to reduce the minimum landing speed to 115 knots (213 km/h; 132 mph), while in flight, airspeeds as low as 15 kt have been observed during training missions.[27] According to simulations by Dassault, the Rafale's has sufficient slow speed performance to operate from STOBAR-configured aircraft carriers, and can take off using a ski-jump with no modifications.[28]

Although not a full-aspect stealth aircraft, the cost of which was viewed as unacceptably excessive, the Rafale was designed for a reduced radar cross-section (RCS) and infra-red signature.[29][30] In order to reduce the RCS, changes from the initial technology demonstrator include a reduction in the size of the tail-fin, fuselage reshaping, repositioning of the engine air inlets underneath the aircraft's wing, and the extensive use of composite materials and serrated patterns for the construction of the trailing edges of the wings and canards.[29][31]

[edit] Cockpit

The Rafale's glass cockpit was designed around the principle of data fusion - a central computer intelligently selects and prioritises information to display to pilots for simpler command and control. Advanced features have been incorporated into this highly digital cockpit; an integrated Direct Voice Input (DVI) system, allowing a range of aircraft functions to be controlled by a pilot's voice commands, is intended to further reduce pilot workload by simplifying control access.[32] For deliberate safety reasons, DVI is not employed for safety-critical elements of the aircraft's operation, such as the final release of armaments.[33] The primary flight controls are arranged in a hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS)-compatible configuration, with a right-handed side-stick controller and a left-handed throttle.[32]

Forward section of Rafale on display at the Paris Air Show, 2005.

For displaying information gathered from a range of sensors across the aircraft, the cockpit features a wide-angle holographic head-up display (HUD) system, two head-down flat-panel colour multi-function displays (MFDs) as well as a central collimated display; these displays have been stragetically placed to minimise pilot distraction from the external environment.[34] A touch interface has been integrated into several displays for ease of pilot interactivity. A head-mounted display (HMD) is in development for future use upon the Rafale, which will undertake tasks such as target selection.[35] The cockpit is fully compatible with night vision goggles (NVG).[32]

In terms of survivability, the Rafale is fitted with a Martin-Baker Mark 16F "zero-zero” ejection seat, capable of operation at zero speed and zero altitude. Seats are at inclined rearwards at an angle of 29° to improve G-force tolerances and provide an unrestricted external view for the pilot.[36] An on-board oxygen generating system, developed by Air Liquide, eliminated the need to carry bulky oxygen canisters.[37] The Rafale's fight computer has been programmed to counteract pilot disorientation and conduct automatic recovery of the aircraft during negative flight conditions; auto-pilot and auto-throttle controls are also integrated, and are activated by switches set upon the primary flight controls.[32]

[edit] Avionics and sensors

Annotated diagram of SPECTRA's elements
OSF is visible upfront, beside the refueling boom.

Built as an air supremacy fighter, the Rafale features an advanced avionics suite; which includes several passive sensor systems. The front-sector electro-optical system or Optronique Secteur Frontal (OSF), developed by Thales, is completely integrated within the aircraft and can operate both in the visible and infrared wavelengths.[38] The OSF can be used for detecting and identifying airborne targets, as well as those on the ground and at sea.[39]

The Rafale core avionics systems employ an Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA), called MDPU (Modular Data Processing Unit). This architecture hosts all the main aircraft functions such as the Flight management system, Data Fusion, Fire Control, and the Man-Machine Interface.[40][N 1] The total value of the radar, electronic communications and self-protection equipment is about 30% of the cost of the entire aircraft.[41] The IMA has since been installed upon several upgraded Mirage 2000 fighters,[42] and incorporated into the civilian airliner, the Airbus A380.[43]

The Rafale features an integrated electronic survival system named SPECTRA, which protects the aircraft against airborne and ground threats.[44] Various methods of detection, jamming, and decoying have been incorporated, and the system has been designed to be highly re-programmable for addressing new threats and incorporating additional sub-systems in the future.[45] Operations over Libya were greatly assisted by SPECTRA, which allowed the Rafale to perform missions independently from the support of dedicated Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) platforms.[46]

The Rafale's ground attack capability was initially limited by the lack of an advanced targeting pod;[47] this was rectified by the addition of Thales Optronique's Reco New Generation/Areos reconnaissance and Damocles targeting pods electro-optical/laser designation pod.[41] Areos is an all-weather, night-and-day-capable reconnaissance system used on the Rafale; both Aroes and Damocles have the ability to transmit information such as images in real-time to ground stations.[48] These systems can be used for tactical reconnaissance missions and battlefield damage assessments; additional sensors and the ability to transmit live video feeds was added in the updated Damocles XF pod.[49]

[edit] Radar

The Rafale is typically outfitted with the Thales RBE2 passive electronically scanned multi-mode radar. Thales claims to have achieved unprecedented levels of situational awareness through the earlier detection and tracking of multiple air targets for close combat and long-range interception, as well as real-time generation of three-dimensional maps for terrain-following and the real-time generation of high resolution ground maps for navigation and targeting.[50] In early 1994, it was reported that technical difficulties with the radar had delayed the Rafale's development by six months.[30] In September 2006, Flight International reported the Rafale's unit cost had significantly rose due to additional development work to improve the RBE2's detection range.[51]

The RBE2 AA Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar is planned to replace the existing passively scanned RBE2. A Rafale demonstrator began test flights in 2002 and has totaled 100 flight hours as of December 2011. By December 2009, production of the pre-series RBE2 AA radars was underway.[48] Radar qualification is expected by the DGA in early 2013, as part of a rolling programme of improvements for the Rafale. The first production Rafale to be delivered with the RBE2 AA will be a Rafale C, scheduled to make its maiden flight in 2012. F3 C137, the first Rafale equipped with AESA radar, was delivered by Dassault in October 2012.[52] By early 2014, the first Air Force front-line squadron will receive Rafales equipped with the AESA radar; the French Navy is slated to receive AESA-equipped Rafales from 2013.[53]

[edit] Standards

Initial deliveries of the Rafale M were to the F1 ("France 1") standard, these had been equipped for the air-to-air interceptor combat duties, but lacked any armaments for air-to-ground operations.[54] Later deliveries were to the "F2" standard, which added the capability for conducting both air-to-ground and reconnaissance operations; the first F2 standard Rafale M was delivered to the French Navy in May 2006.[55] The Rafale M is the only fixed-wing combat aircraft flown by the Aviation Navale, and plans are to upgrade all airframes to the "F3" standard, with terrain-following 3D radar and nuclear capability, from early in the decade following 2010.[56] Starting in 2008 onwards, Rafale deliveries have been to the F3 standard, it has been reported that all aircraft built to the earlier F1 and F2 standards are to be upgraded to become F3s.[32]

Closeup of the rear of the airframe and the two engine nozzles.

A total of 59 Rafale F3s were delivered from June 2008 to January 2012 (47 for the French Air Force (36 Rafale C + 11 Rafale B), plus 12 Rafale M carrier-borne fighters for the French Navy. Rafales of the F3 standard are capable of undertaking many different roles with a range of equipment: air defence/superiority missions with Mica IR and EM air-to-air missiles, precision ground attacks typically using Scalp cruise missiles and AASM Hammer air-to-surface armaments, anti-shipping using the AM39 Exocet sea-skimming missile, reconnaissance using the Thales new generation reconnaissance pod, and nuclear deterrence operations when armed with ASMP-A missiles.[57]

[edit] Engines

Main article: Snecma M88

The Rafale is fitted with the Snecma M88 engine, capable of providing up to 50 kN (11,250 lbf) of dry thrust and 75 kN (16,900 lbf) with afterburners. They enable the Rafale to supercruise at speeds of up to Mach 1.4 while carrying a loadout of six MBDA MICA air-to-air missiles.[58][59] In 1996, production of the M88-2 engine began,[60] however due to delays in engine production, the Rafale was initially powered by the General Electric F404 engine instead.[61] In May 2010, a Rafale flew for the first time with the M88-4E engine, an upgraded engine with greater thrust and lower maintaince requirements than the previous M88-2 variant;[62] interest has been stated in improved engines by potential export customers such as the United Arab Emirates.[63] As of 2007, a thrust vectoring variant of the engine designated as M88-3D was also under development.[54]

[edit] Operational history

[edit] France

[edit] Overview

Formation of five Rafales making a flypast in 2006

The Rafale is now in service in the trials and training role with the French Air Force (CEAM/EC 5/330). Escadron de Chasse 1/7 at Saint-Dizier was expected to receive a nucleus of 8–10 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006, and was set to enter full operational service (with robust air-to-air and stand off air-to-ground precision attack capabilities) during mid-2007 (when EC 1/7 will have about 20 aircraft, 15 two-seaters and five single-seaters).[64] In February 2011, Rafales flew demonstrations in India, including air-to-air combat against Su-30s.[65]

In November 2009 the French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and Navy to 180.[66] The Rafale is planned to be the French Air Force's primary combat aircraft until 2040 or later.[67]

The Rafale M is fully compatible with US Navy aircraft carriers and some French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks.[68] On 4 June 2010, during an exercise on the USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75), a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreign navy to have its jet engine changed on board an American aircraft carrier.[69]

Two Rafale M aboard USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75) in 2008

In 2009, French officials were reportedly considering equipping the Rafale to launch miniaturized satellites.[70] In 2011, upgrades under consideration include a software radio and satellite link, a new laser-targeting pod, smaller bombs and enhancements to the aircraft's data fusion capacity.[71] In July 2012, fleetwide upgrades of the Rafale's battlefield communications and interoperability capabilities commenced.[72]

[edit] Afghanistan

The first Rafale deployed in a combat zone were those of the French Navy during "Mission Héraclès", the French participation in "Operation Enduring Freedom". They flew from the Charles de Gaulle over Afghanistan as early as 2002, but the F1 standard precluded air-to-ground missions and the Rafale did not see any action. In June 2002, while Charles de Gaulle was in the Arabian Sea, Rafales conducted several patrols near the India-Pakistan border.[73]

In 2007, after a "crash program" enhancement six Rafales were given the ability to drop laser-guided bombs, in view of engaging them in Afghanistan. Three of these aircraft belonging to the Air Force were deployed to Dushanbe in Tajikistan, while the three others were Rafale Marine of the Navy on board the Charles De Gaulle.[74] The first mission occurred on 12 March 2007, and the first GBU-12 was launched on 28 March in support of embattled Dutch troops in Southern Afghanistan, marking the operational début of the Rafale.[75] Between January 2009 and December 2011, a minimum of three Rafales were stationed at Kandahar International Airport to conduct combat operations in support of NATO ground forces.[76]

[edit] Libya

On 19 March 2011, French Rafales began conducting reconnaissance and strike missions over Libya in Opération Harmattan, in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973; initial targets were artillery pieces laying siege around the rebel city of Benghazi.[77] The Rafale could operate in Libya without the support of Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) aircraft, using the onboard Spectra self-defense system instead.[46] On 24 March 2011, it was reported that a Rafale had destroyed a Libyan Air Force G-2/Galeb light attack/trainer aircraft on the runway.[78][79]

The Rafale would typically conduct six-hour sorties over Libyan airspace, carrying an armament of four MICA air-to-air missiles, four or six AASM "Hammer" bombs, a Thales Damoclès targeting pod and two drop tanks;[46] these patrols required multiple aerial refuelling operations per sortie from coalition tanker aircraft.[80] The AASM precision-guidance weapon system, utilising bombs weighing between 125 kilograms (275.6 lb) and 1,000 kilograms (2,204.6 lb), allowed the Rafale to conduct high-altitude bombing missions.[80] Reportedly, Rafale crews preferred to use GPS-guided munitions due to greater reliability and range. Storm Shadow SCALP weapons were deployed on only one or two sorties, such as against a Libyan airbase at Al-Jufra.[81]

In 2011, aviation journalist Craig Hoyle speculated that the Rafale's performance in Libya is likely to be pivotal to the aircraft's export future, reporting that the Rafale had managed to maintain a high operational rate throughout the Libyan deployment. Hoyle also noted that the Libyan combat experience had caused several urgent operational requirements to present themselves, such as the need for a lighter ground-attack munition and for modifications to the AASM weapon to be more effective when used in the close air support role.[80]

[edit] Potential and possible operators

[edit] India

Rafale taxies to the runway for take off during Aero India 2011.

The Rafale was one of the six fighter aircraft competing for the Indian MRCA Competition for 126 multi-role fighters. Originally, the Mirage 2000 had been considered for the competition, but Dassault withdrew the Mirage in favour of the Rafale.[82] In April 2011, the Indian Air Force (IAF) shortlisted Dassault Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon for the US$ 10.4 billion contract.[83] On 31 January 2012, the IAF announced the Rafale as the preferred bidder in the competition.[5][84]

Under the proposed contract, 18 Rafales would be supplied to the IAF by 2015 in fly-away condition, while the remaining 108 would be manufactured in India under transfer of technology agreements. It has been speculated that at a later stage, India's order may include a further 64 aircraft to equip 3 squadrons.[85][86] Some Indian politicians have questioned the aircraft's performance in Operation Harmattan during the Libyan civil war and have alleged "manipulation in the evaluation process."[87][88] In response to these concerns, an independent investigation concluded that the evaluation was conducted according to the RFP terms and defence procurement procedures.[89]

[edit] Brazil

In June 2008, the Brazilian Air Force issued a Request For Information on the following aircraft: Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, Lockheed Martin F-16, Dassault Rafale, Su-35, Gripen NG and Eurofighter Typhoon.[90] In October 2008, it was reported that Brazilian Air Force had selected three finalists for F-X2; Dassault Rafale, Gripen NG and Boeing F/A-18E/F.[91] On 7 September 2009, during a visit by French President Nicolas Sarkozy, Brazil announced that contract negotiations to buy 36 Rafales were ongoing.[92] On 5 January 2010, media reports stated that the final evaluation report by the Brazilian Air Force placed the Gripen ahead of the other two contenders on ground of unit and operating costs.[93][94] In February 2011, the press announced that the new president of Brazil, Dilma Rousseff, had decided in favor of the American F-18.[95] On 28 February 2011, the Minister of Finance, Guido Mantega, said the issue would not be resolved in the current year due to budget constraints.[96]

[edit] Kuwait

In February 2009, French President Nicolas Sarkozy announced that Kuwait was considering buying up to 28 Rafales.[97] In October 2009 during a visit to Paris, the Kuwaiti Defense Minister expressed his interest in the Rafale and said that he was awaiting terms from Dassault.[98] Islamist lawmakers in the Kuwaiti national assembly threatened to block any purchase of the Rafale.[99] In January 2012 the French Defence Minister said that both Kuwait and Qatar were waiting to see if the UAE first purchased the Rafale and that Kuwait would look to buy 18-22 Rafales.[100]

[edit] Qatar

The Qatar Emiri Air Force is, as of January 2011, evaluating the Rafale together with the Lockheed Martin F-35 Joint Strike Fighter, the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, the Boeing F-15 and the Eurofighter Typhoon to replace its current inventory of Dassault Mirage 2000-5s. The total order for 24–36 aircraft will be decided on by the end of 2012.[101][102]

[edit] Switzerland

In February 2007, it was reported that Switzerland was considering the Rafale and other fighters to replace its Northrop F-5 Tiger IIs.[103] The one-month evaluation started in October 2008 at Emmen Airforce Base consisting of approx. 30 evaluation flights. The Rafale along with the Saab JAS 39 Gripen and the Eurofighter were to be evaluated.[104] On 30 November 2011 the Swiss Federal Council announced that it was planning to buy 22 Gripen NGs due to its lower acquisition and maintenance costs.[105] However a leaked Swiss Air Force evaluation report revealed that the Rafale won the competition on technical grounds and Dassault offered to lower the price for 18 Rafales.[106]

[edit] United Arab Emirates

The United Arab Emirates Air Force is interested in an upgraded version of the Rafale with more powerful engines and radar, and advanced air to air missiles.[107] but has also started to explore a purchase of the Eurofighter Typhoon[108] or the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.[109] This is reported to be because France's Defense Minister Hervé Morin asked the UAE to pay 2 billion euros of the total cost to upgrade the Rafale.[110] Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces, Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan has called the French offer "uncompetitive and unworkable".[111] The French newspaper La Tribune reported on 2 February 2012, that the UAE is still interested in buying up to 60 Rafales in a deal worth US$10 billion. Interoperatibility among the Gulf air forces has led to renewed interest in the Rafale from Qatar and Oman.[112][113]

[edit] Others

In February 2009, France offered Rafales to Oman to replace its ageing fleet of SEPECAT Jaguars.[114] In 2010, however, reports of Oman's preference for the Eurofighter emerged.[115]

In January 2006, the French newspaper Journal du Dimanche reported that Libya sought 13–18 Rafales "in a deal worth as much as $3.24 billion".[116] In December 2007, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi declared Libya's interest in the Rafale.[117] While Libya did not order any Rafales, during the 2011 Libyan civil war French Rafales were dispatched over Libya in the international military intervention.[118]

In September 2007, La Tribune reported that a sale to Morocco had fallen through, the government selecting the F-16 instead.[119] In October 2007, La Tribune's earlier report appeared to have been confirmed that the Rafale would not be bought.[120]

During 2006, while there was potentially trouble with Anglo-American negotiations over the F-35 JSF, there was talk of purchasing the Rafale M for the British Royal Navy.[121][122] The British amended their JSF requirement to the conventional CATOBAR carrier variant and their aircraft carriers will be fitted with catapults capable of launching aircraft such as Rafales.[123]

[edit] Variants

Rafale B/C and M
Rafale A
Technology demonstrator, first flying in 1986.
Rafale D
Dassault used this designation (D for "discret") in the early 1990s to emphasise the new semi-stealthy design features.
Rafale B
Two-seater version for the Armée de l'Air.
Rafale C
Single-seat version for the Armée de l'Air.
Rafale M
Carrier-borne version for the Aéronavale, which entered service in 2002. The Rafale M weighs about 500 kg (1,100 lb) more than the Rafale C. For carrier operations, the M model has a strengthened airframe, longer nose gear leg to provide a more nose-up attitude, larger tailhook between the engines, and a built-in boarding ladder.
Rafale N
Originally called the Rafale BM, was a planned two-seater version for the Aéronavale. Budget constraints and training costs have been cited as grounds for its cancellation.
Rafale R
Proposed reconnaissance-oriented variant, unbuilt.[29]

[edit] Operators

 France
180 ordered with 101 delivered as of December 2011[24][124]

[edit] Accidents

  • On 6 December 2007, a French Air Force twin-seat Rafale crashed during a training flight. The pilot, who suffered black out, was killed in the accident.[125]
  • On 24 September 2009, after unarmed test flights, two French Navy Rafales returning to the Charles de Gaulle, collided in mid-air about 30 kilometers (19 mi) from the town of Perpignan in southwest France. One test pilot, identified as François Duflot, was killed in the accident, while the other was successfully rescued.[126]
  • On 28 November 2010, a Rafale from the carrier Charles de Gaulle crashed in the Arabian Sea. This aircraft was supporting Allied operations in Afghanistan. The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by a SAR helicopter from the carrier. Later reports said the engine stopped after being starved of fuel due to confusion by the pilot in switching fuel tanks.[127]
  • On 2 July 2012, during a joint exercise, a Rafale from the carrier Charles de Gaulle crashed in the Mediterranean Sea. The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by an American search and rescue helicopter from the carrier USS Eisenhower.[128]

[edit] Specifications

Dassault Rafale.svg
Weapon complement of the Rafale
AASM-Hammer family of weapons
MICA: Short to Medium-Range Air-to-Air Tactical Missile

Data from Dassault Aviation,[129] Superfighters,[130] French Navy,[131]International Directory of Military Aircraft[132]

General characteristics

  • Crew: 1–2
  • Length: 15.27 m (50.1 ft)
  • Wingspan: 10.80 m (35.4 ft)
  • Height: 5.34 m (17.5 ft)
  • Wing area: 45.7 m² (492 ft²)
  • Empty weight: 9,500 kg (C), 9,770 kg (B),[131] 10,196 kg (M) ()
  • Loaded weight: 14,016 kg (30,900 lb)
  • Max. takeoff weight: 24,500 kg (C/D), 22,200 kg (M) (54,000 lb)
  • Powerplant: 2 × Snecma M88-2 turbofans
    • Dry thrust: 50.04 kN (11,250 lbf) each
    • Thrust with afterburner: 75.62 kN (17,000 lbf) each
  • Fuel capacity: 4,700 kg (10,000 lb) internal

Performance

Armament

Avionics

[edit] See also

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Related lists

[edit] References

[edit] Notes

  1. ^ Quote: "The core of the enhanced capabilities of the RAFALE lies in a new Modular Data Processing Unit (MDPU). It is composed of up to 18 flight line-replaceable modules, each with a processing power 50 times higher than that of the 2084 XRI type computer fitted on the early versions of Mirage 2000-5."

[edit] Citations

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