One of the matters to be dealt with first by Mehmet the Conqueror was to meet the city's running water requirements. Examination of maps of the water supply systems for Istanbul and its environs will reveal what a magnificent achievement this supply system built entirely by the Turks, really is. Work started in the reign of Mehmet the Conqueror, was intensified when Süleyman the Magnificent was on the throne, and continued throughout the reign of Mahmut I and, finally, of Abdülhamid II. This was a scheme that continued over a period of 500 years to satisfy Istanbul's demand for water with a system of reservoirs, aqueducts and supply lines, together with the fountains connected to them. Istanbul's water was stored in the large number of reservoirs in the Belgrade Forest and conveyed to the city over aqueducts. This water then passed through distribution chambers located at various points in the city and thence was distributed to buildings and fountains within the city. In order to maintain the pressure, water towers were built in a number of locations, one of these can be seen in Ayasofia Square. There is another stone water tower, which, judging by its Baroque profiles must be l8th century, next to the Þehzade Mosque. There is another large water tower made of brick and stone at the top of the Acýbadem Road in Kadýköy. It possesses considerable architectural character but is unfortunately surrounded by houses.

The Kýrkçeþme, Halkalý and Belgrade Forest waters, which belonged to foundations, were distributed to fountains in the city erected by charitable people. The conduits of these fountains were maintained by people who were specially appointed for this purpose. All the charitable foundation waters were transferred to the Municipality in 1926 and shortly afterwards use of the old supply lines was abandoned and hundreds of fountains ran dry. The water accumulated in the Belgrade Forest used to be stored in the Karanlýk Topuz Reservoir (1722), the Büyübend Reservoir, the Kirazlý Reservoir and the Ayvad Reservoir (1766), all of which are located near Büyükdere and conveyed to the city via the 126 + 216m Eðrikemer, the 716m Uzunkemer (1564), the 265m Muallak and the 170m Güzelce or Cebeciköyü aqueducts and a number of smaller aqueducts as well; the water was stored in a reservoir of the distribution chamber at Eðrikapý, from where it was distributed to various places in the city. The Halkalý Waters flowed to the city by way of the 104m Maz'ul Aqueduct, the main part of which dates from Roman times, and the Kavasköyü and Ali Paþa aqueducts. Of all the aqueducts on the Istanbul side, the most impressive in architectural terms is Sinan's Maðlova Aqueduct, commissioned by Süleyman the Magnificent. This two-storey aqueduct with its two rows of arches occupies in aesthetic terms a major place in water-related architecture, it was built in order to span the Alibeyköy Creek. This great work of architecture now lies beneath the waters of the Alibey Dam Lake, a project that was launched in the 1970's but which seems to be both unecessary and,technically speaking, of little use.

Construction of the biggest water supply network on the Galata side of the city, commenced in the first half of the 18th century. The water accumulated in the Sultan Mahmud Reservoir, built by Mahmud I in 1732, the Valide Mihriþah Sultan Reservoir (1796) and the Topuzlu Reservoir was conveyed via the 409m Bahçeköy Aqueduct (1732) to the ‘maksem’, or distribution chamber at Taksim in the centre of the city (it is this facility which gives the dist rict its name), from where it was distributed to fountains in Galata and Beyoðlu. Sultan Abdülhamid II(1876-1909) had the water supply system known as the Hamidiye Waters built and its water was distributed to the Hamidiye fountains in the Beyoðlu, Tophane and Beþiktaþ districts of Istanbul.

The hundreds of fountains, both large and small, that were built in the course of 500 years in almost every street in Istanbul, and which all belonged to foundations, were an indication of the importance attached to water by charitable people. Although many of them are no longer in existence, the fact that there are 800 fountains with inscriptions provides food for thought. If we take into account the examples of these little monuments, many of which reflect the artistic tastes of their day, that are without inscriptions and the eighty or so charity fountains as well, then we can safely say that there are at least a thousand fountains in Istanbul. Bearing in mind that now, there is no need for the water that once flowed from these fountains and that in any case almost all of them are now dry but they should still have been regarded as adornments and every effort made to preserve them. It was the cafes, the great shady trees and the fountains in the squares of old Istanbul that endowed them with their most essential features. Unfortunately, apart from a small number of large public and charity fountains, most of these monuments to water have either been demolished or disfigured, pulled down on the pretext of development, or had parts of them removed to gain space for something else, others have been sold or their reservoirs rented. The Municipality is urgently requested to accept these old fountains as the surviving witnesses both of a long history and of Turkish civilisation and to take greater care of them in the future.

The fountains built in the second half of the l5th century and in the l6th century are not over-elaborate in terms of architecture and decoration. The water that was made available to the city by Sinan in the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent was discharged through fountains with rows of water jets. The Kýrkçeþme Fountains, which used to be opposite the Gazanfer Aða madrasa were destroyed during the construction of Atatürk Boulevard, were famous for the Byzantine peacock reliefs on one of their facings. On one side of Sultanahmet Square, which is now standing below the level of the surrounding grourid are the Çukurçeþme Fountains, which were part of the water supply system set up by Sinan.

The architecture of fountains achieved a new stage of development in the l8th century with the penetration into Turkish art of motifs that were Western in origin, at the same time preserving its classic lines. Later on the general architecture of fountains came under the Baroque influence. The finest fountain ever created by Turkish art is the Fountain of Ahmed III (1703-1730) in front of the Bâb-ý hümayun, of Imperial Gate, of the Topkapý Palace. On each face of this fountain, which is embellished with a couplet containing the date of construction (1728) composed by the sultan himself there is a fountain set in a columned niche and charity fountains at the corners from where snow chilled sherbet and water were distributed on religious feast days and special occasions. It is covered by a domed roof with extremely wide eaves. The ornamentations on the underside of the eaves are foreign to Turkish art and the vast majority of the decorations on its surfaces are not in accordance with the tastes of classical art. However, classic lines and proportions are still dominant in the general architecture of this fountain. Although the Ýskele Fountain by the waterfront at Üsküdar, again built by Ahmet III in 1728 resembles the above-mentioned fountain to some extent there are no apertures for charitable distributions at its corners.

Instead there are drinking basins with water jets at a comfortable height for drinking. Its marble facings are ornamented and it is also embellished with inscriptions containing the date written by Ahmed III, Grand Vizier Nevþehirli Ibrahim Paþ and the poet Nedim. Old engravings tell us that it used to have a domed roof which was later replaced by another. The Tophane Fountain, built in 1732 in connection with the Beyoðlu water supply system founded by Mahmud I is similar to the two fountains described above. It also used to stand at the head of one of the city's most important quays. It has water jets on all four surfaces and its marble facades are richly embellished. Old paintings indicate that at one time it had a roof with wide eaves. This roof and the eaves, the underside of which were ornamented, were removed in the 19th century but the fountain was reconstructed and restored to its original appearance in 1957.

At the same time, the water supply system in Beyoðlu which was being developed by Mahmut I his mother, Valide Saliha Sultan, had a fine public square fountain built in Azapkapý in 1732. Here a different plan was applied and on one of its facades there was a charity fountain, on either side of which there were water jets. The marble surfaces of the latter were richly embellished with reliefs. The roof was removed in 1910, which led to the rapid deterioration of this beautiful fountain. However, in 1954 it was thoroughly repaired and restored to its former state. In accordance with the Turkish architecture of the Ottoman period and the traditions of the pious foundations, schools that were for boys were always built together with a public or charity fountain and, in keeping with this custom, a fine boys' school was built next to the fountain at Azapkapýsý. The boys' school was demolished in 1954 so that a bend in the road could be widened.

A fountain built by Hekimoðlu Ali Paþa on top of the embankment at Kabataþ in 1732 was removed from its place in 1955 and erected again at the head of the quay below. This fountain also has marble facings embellished with reliefs. The Bereketzade Fountain, which is richly embellished in accordance with the tastes of its time, is a wall fountain that once stood in a side street in the Galata district. However, in 1955 it was moved and attached to a section of the city wall at the foot of the Galata Tower.

The Western European Baroque influence had already begun to penetrate its way into Turkish art. By the middle of the l8th century it was making its influence felt in fountain design. While this foreign style was not suitable for large buildings, especially mosques, it did not strike an odd note when applied to fountain design and even produced pleasing effects in these small works. In this respect the fountains of Istanbul could be considered a striking example of a distant extension of the Baroque style adapted to Turkish tastes and needs. When the neo-classical or Empire style that emerged in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century and gained its inspiration from ancient Greek and Roman art, began to exert an influence on Ottoman art it also manifested this influence in fountain architecture. A striking example of this is the Valide Sultan Fountain, which is square, with marble facades and Corinthian pilasters. It is located in the Maçka district of the city but unfortunately, as a result of bad town planning, it is now hemmed in by blocks of flats.

When Sultan Abdülhamid II had the Hamidiye water supply system built he also had many fountains erected between Beyoðlu and Beþiktaþ to discharge the water. Of these the Balmumcu Fountain with its wide eaves is an example of how the Turkish neo-classical style, which manifested itself at the beginning of the l9th century, was applied. The same tendency can be detected in smaller fountains consisting only of a drinking basin with a marble or stone plate behind it. Fountains similar to the small cast iron ones to be found in Paris at that time were made and erected in various places. There were many different types of fountains in Istanbul. The Ýshak Aða Fountain at Beykoz, which has an ornamented ceiling and wide roof, is the only one of its kind in Istanbul. There were fountains of an entirely different style, surmounted by the minaret, consisting only of a gallery of an adjoining masjid. Examples of this are the Attar Halil Aða masjid at the west end of Vatan Avenue and the Oksüzce Masjids in the Yenibahçe district, both of which were demolished, together with their unusual minarets. The Esma Sultan Fountain in the Kadýrga Limaný district was surmounted by a terrace envisaged as an area for public worship.

Some of the most beautiful examples of charity fountains with apertures through which free water and even cold sherbet would be distributed to ensure that prayers would be said for the soul of the founder are to be found in Istanbul. Although some of these have been destroyed the remaining ones contain a range of different styles. Istanbul's oldest charity fountain was the late l5th century Efdalzade Fountain in the Fatih district; it was unfortunately demolished in about 1940 on the pretext that it “spoiled the view” of a new Junior School. The first street-corner fountains, which had a window facing onto each street developed in the l6th century. They had pointed arches, wide eaves and an iron or bronze grille over their windows and had developed into quite striking, small architectural monuments. These fountains were erected in the corner of a larger foundation project funded by the same charitable person. One of the charity fountains displaying the simple lines of classical l6th century Turkish architecture stands in a corner of the tomb of Sinan the Architect. Also belonging to the same period is the fountain of the Koca Sinan Madrasa in the Çarþýkapý district, built by the architect Dalgýç Ahmed Aða, that of the Gazanfer Aða Madrasa at the foot of the Bozdoðan (Valens) Aqueduct and the Kuyucu Murad Paþa Fountain, which stands in front of the Faculty of Arts Building. All of this work reflects the classical Turkish architecture of the 16th century. The fact that these fountains are next to the tombs of their founders could be interpreted as a hint that the latter were hoping a prayer would be said for their souls.

In a corner of the outer walls of the Merzifonlu Mustafa Paþa and Ayasofia mosques there are charity fountains which have no inscriptions to tell us the name of their founders; however it is considered that they belong to the foundation of Sultan lbrahim. It is evident that the same style and tradition continued into the l7th century. However, the tendency towards elaborate decoration present in art from the beginning of the l8th century onwards can be seen most clearly in the Saliha Sultan Fountain at Azapkapý (1732) in the Nevþehirli lbrahim Paþa Fountain at Þehzadebaþý, in the Seyyit Hasan Paþa Fountain in front of the Faculty of Arts, the Recai Efendi Foundation in the Vefa district, which is beneath a boys' school, the Koca Yusuf Paþa Fountain at Kabataþ, the Nurosmanî Fountain next to the courtyard gate of the Nurosmani Mosque, the Fountain of Sultan Abdülhamid I, which used to be at the corner of the soup kitchen at Bahçekapý and was later moved to the corner of the Zeynep Sultan Mosque at the top of Alemdar Hill, the Hacý Emin Aða Fountain opposite the Dolmabahçe Mosque (this was moved backwards from its original site) and the Charity Fountains of Mihriþah Valide Sultan at Eyüp. It is evident that Baroque motifs had come to the fore by the end of the l8th century.

The Empire or neo-classical influence can be distinguished in the fountain beneath the Cevrî Kalfa Fountain at the side of Sultanahmed Square, built during the reign of Mahmud II (early l9th century). However, most of these fountains bear the rounded lines of a temple of the Early Ages and this can be more clearly discerned in the fountain of the Tomb of Sultan Mahmud.

The Turkish baths, which are yet another example of water-related architecture, were built in large numbers by people who set up pious foundations because they provided an income. Due to the fact that the public baths built in Istanbul after the Ottoman conquest created a water shortage, and that problems were encountered in supplying firewood, the building of new public baths was prohibited in the l8th century.

A blind eye has been turned to the demolition of public baths in Istanbul, which exceed 150 in number, because all that can be seen after they have gone is a demolition site and thus it is not considered that they could possibly be of any historical or architectural value. These baths, which no longer belong to the pious foundations for which they once provided income, are now in private hands. Changes in living conditions have meant that they are now rarely used and no reason can be seen as to why they should not be demolished. Others have been victims of “development”.

Among the recent victims of town planning bungles were the l5th century Murad Paþa Baths in Aksaray, the Molla Çelebi Baths in Fýndýklý and the Barbaros Baths at Beþiktaþ, both of which were the work of Sinan. The Çukurçeþme Baths in the Lâleli district, which had belonged to the Fatih Foundation and the l7th century Kýzlaraðasý Abbas Aða Baths in the same district were also willingly destroyed in the 1920's. It is these baths that are the most vivid proof of Turkish civilisation, and they, with their different types of plan, varieties of marble which lent colour to their interiors and embellishments on their arches and vaults, should be considered architectural works of artistic value.

One of Istanbul’s oldest surviving Turkish baths, of which only half remains are the Mahmud Paþa Baths, built in 1466. The large and monumental Tahtakale Baths, which were built in the reign of Mehmet the Conqueror, were used as a cold storage depot for many years and are now being turned into a bazaar. The biggest of the surviving double baths are the Bayezýd Baths in the Bayezýt district. These baths have been incorrectly referred to as the Patrona Halil Baths in recent years, whose neglected state render it impossible to discern their beauty, are also of value because they belong to the great Bayezýd külliye, or mosque complex. The Ayasofia Baths, which lie between Ayasofia and Sultanahmed and were built in 1556 by Sinan for Haseki Hürrem Sultan are among the finest and the largest Turkish baths in Istanbul. Other beautiful baths are the Dökmeciler Baths, belonging to the Süleymaniye Mosque Complex; these baths were built by Sinan and, judging by the fact that they consist of only one section, they must have been intended for the use of the denizens of the mosque complex and the madrasas; the Kýlýç Ali Paþa Baths at Tophane, again the work of Sinan, the Çemberlitaþ Baths in the Çemberlitaþ district, of which only half are now open to to public, the Balat Baths on the banks of the Golden Horn, the Çinili Baths, built by Barbaros Hayrettin Paþa at Zeyrek and fýnally the Caðaloðlu Baths, the last to be built in Istanbul; these baths were intended to provide an income for the library set up by Mahmud I in Ayasofia in 1741. The Çemberlitaþ Baths, built to provide an income for the pious foundations of Nurbanu Sultan are striking in terms of the casidas (poems) which are inscribed over the doors of their private rooms and coloured with marble decorations.

The Çinili Baths, which belonged to the pious foundation of the great admiral Barbaros Hayrettin Paþa, were as their name implies, embellished with enamelled wall tiles and some of these still survive in the changing rooms. The Caðaloðlu Baths are an important building which is a milestone in the development of this type of architecture. Apart from these bazaar baths, built to provide income for pious foundation buildings, there were a few private baths in the mansions and waterside residences of important persons which resembled the big public baths in architecture and plan and were tastefully decorated. It is perhaps only the Vezneciler Baths in Bayezýt, which are still open to the public, that were perhaps formerly private baths. Baths of this type can also be seen occasionally in the gardens of some of the waterside residences by the Bosphorus.