Managing the Timber Resource: An Overview

The use of forests to produce goods and services for society has strongly shaped the landscape of the southern Appalachians. Forests dominate the region, covering more than 68 percent of land.

Of this forest land, 95 percent (23.6 million acres) is considered timberland. Timberland is defined by the USDA Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis program as forested acres capable of producting at least 20 cubic feet of industrial wood per year  (Connor and Hartsell 2002).  Most (73 percent) of this timberland is owned by nonindustrial private landowners. Government agencies hold 21 percent, and forest industry controls 6 percent (SAMAB 1996d).

Practically all of the regions forests have been harvested at least once since the mid-1800s, and an industry based on sustained timber growth and production in second-growth forests thrives there today. Softwood sawtimber, hardwood saw logs and veneer logs as well as low-quality timber for paper, packaging, and composite board material are produced in the region and define one of the most complex timber markets in the United States (SAMAB 1996d).

Of the approximately 14.5 million acres of timberland in the Southern Appalachian region, hardwoods cover 10.7 million acres, natural pine and oak-pine mixtures cover 3.4 million acres, and planted pines cover only 0.4 million acres (Conner and Hartsell 2002: 396).  Silviculture relies primarily on natural regeneration and intermediate practices that favor desired species.  Plantations exist but are rare in most of the southern Appalachians for numerous reasons. Forests are often in steep topography on stony soils that make it difficult to operate equipment for intensive site preparation. Deer browsing and competing vegetation are also serious problems for planted seedlings. Furthermore, economic incentives are scant for establishing plantation-style monocultures in the central hardwood region where markets for softwood timber are not well developed (Hicks 1998). 

In the southern Appalachians, as elsewhere in the eastern hardwood region, there is a need for a wide range of cutting methods and cultural measures, with prescriptions varied to suit each particular tract (Marquis and Johnson 1989). Forests are characterized by a large diversity of tree species, a great variety of land-use objectives, and wide variations in timber markets, tree values, and operating costs.

Several factors influence selection of an appropriate silvicultural strategy. Most of the current stands in the central hardwood region are primarily even-aged stands and between 50 and 90 years old (Seymour and others 1986). These stands resulted from either commercial logging or regrowth after agricultural abandonment. Fire has affected many of them. Many hardwood stands are in stages of development where intermediate management methods (thinning, release, improvement, and sanitation cutting) are appropriate. However, as Hicks (1998) points out, it is unrealistic to assume that owners of small private forest tracts will readily apply such treatments to their stands unless they produce a profit.

Development of advance regeneration is critical for oak reporduction in central hardwood stands. Healthy advance oak regeneration depends on adequate sunlight on the forest floor, as well as sources of seeds or sprouts. Regenerating oaks on high-quality sites is more difficult than on poor-quality sites due to the increased competition from faster-growing tree species, especially yellow-poplar (Loftis 1988; Sims and Loftis 1990). Species in the cove (mesophytic) hardwood group, such as yellow-poplar, sweet birch, and black cherry, can regenerate adequately from seed without the need for advance seedlings. Success with these species depends on having a high-quality growing site.

For successful regeneration of oaks, Loftis (1989) recommends use of the concepts of "initial floristic composition" (Egler 1954) and "vital ecological attributes." The initial floristics model relies on the presence of sources of regeneration of the currently existing species (seeds, advance seedlings, and sprouting potential). Vital ecological attributes are the conditions (site conditions, sunlight, etc.) that promote growth and survival of these propagules.

Miller and Kochenderfer (1998) propose that maintaining species diversity is the key to sustaining the productivity of Appalachian forests. They further suggest that silvicultural practices that create larger canopy openings (> 0.5 acres) at the appropriate times can be used to regenerate virtually all desirable tree species in the region. To read more about the Miller and Kochenderfer (1998) discussion of appropriate silvicultural techniques for the southern Appalachians, see Comparing silvicultural systems.

Decisions about the appropriate silvicultural system are based on a combination of landowner goals and constraints, site characteristics, current stand conditions, and potential or existing sources of regeneration (Beck 1988). These decisions are further complicated by pest management constraints and potential future economic values of different species (Marquis and others 1992).