EARLY PERIOD TO 1568 A.D.

Early history

Kalinga is known to be a powerful kingdom as early as the time of the Kurukshetra battle. Srutayudha, the king of the Kalinga joined the camp of the Kourava in the battle and was killed in the battle by Bhimasena with his two heroic sons: Bhanumana and Ketumana. After the Mahabharata War a new Kshetriya dynasty ruled over Kalinga and it is known from the Buddhist work ‘Mahagovinda Suttanta’ that the glory and power of Kalinga was restored within a short period. According to the Puranas 32 Kshetriya kings ruled over Kalinga after the Mahabharata War up to the time of Mahapadmananda who ascended the throne of Magadha in 362 B. C.

Nanda rule

Mahapadmananda defeated and killed the last of the series of the 32 Kshetriya kings and incorporated Kalinga to his extensive empire. Although Kalinga lost her independence, she became economically prosperous under the Nanda rule. Mahapadmananda undertook irrigation projects to eradicate famine condition in Kalinga. The pre-Mauryan black polished potteries and punch-marked coins having four symbols found in plenty from Asurgarh in Kalahandi district and Sonapur in Bolangir district indicate the flourishing economic condition during the time of the Nanda rule.

After Mahapadmananda his eight sons ruled one after the other and the last Nanda king was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya who found the Maurya rule in Magadha. During the time of Chandragupta’s rebellion against the last Nanda king, Kalinga declared her self independent and tried to build her strength as an overseas power.

Kalinga under the Mauryan

Neither Chandragupta Maurya nor his son Vindusara tried to bring back Kalinga to the Magadha empire. It was Asoka, the son of Vindusara who invaded Kalinga in 261 B.C. and succeeded in occupying Kalinga. The Kalinga War was of colossal nature in which as many as 1,00,000 were killed and 1,50,000 were taken captives while as many as that number died as an aftermath of the war. Asoka was deeply moved by the terrible bloodshed caused by this war and was converted to Buddhism.

The hilly land lying to the west of Kalinga was known as the Atavika territory, the fighting forces of which were utilized by Kalinga during the war. Asoka annexed the coastal region of Kalinga to his empire and gave up the idea of further conquest. He tried to conciliate the unconquered Atavika people and desired to conquer their heart by love. That was the principle of Dharmavijaya and was followed by Asoka after the Kalinga War.

Kalinga became one of the administrative provisions in the empire of Magadha with headquarters of a Kumara (Viceroy) located at Tosali. The second headquarters was at Samapa where a high executive officer called Rajavachanika was stationed. Tosali was also the headquarters of the highest judiciary authority of the province.

Asoka aimed at a benevolent administration with a well organized bureaucracy and vigorously worked for the consolidation of the Maurya rule in the newly conquered province. Buddhism spared over Kalinga under his patronage and became the State religion while the art of stone masonry developed to a great extent. Edicts were engraved on the Dhauli and Jaugada rocks to inculcate his administration and religious principles to the people. Asoka died in 232 B.C. and the Maurya empire lasted up to 185 B.C.

Mahameghavahana Kharavela

In the early past of the 1 st century B.C. Kalinga became independent under the Chedi Chief Mahameghavana. The third ruler of this dynasty was Kahravela who flourished during the second half of the 1 st century B.C. The Hatigumpha inscription in Udayagiri near Bhubaneswar furnishes detailed accounts about the life and activities of Kharavela from his boyhood to his 13 th regnal year. It is known from this record that Kharavela on the premature death of his father took up the administration first as a Yuvaraja and then on completion of 24 years of age ascended to the throne as Maharaja. In the first year of his coronation he repaired the gates and rampants of his capital Kalinganagari which had been damaged by cyclone. In the second year he invaded the territory of the Satavahana king Satakarni I and marching up to the river Krishna stormed the city of Asika. In the 3 rd year of his reign he organized various performances of dance and music and delighted the people of Kalinganagari. In the fourth year he again invaded the Satavahana kingdom and extended his political supremacy over the region. In the fifth year he is known to have renovated the aqueduct that was originally excavated three hundred years back by Mahapadmananda. In the sixth year he remitted taxes and gave benevolences both in urban and rural areas of his kingdom. The account of his seventh year is not known. But that year his chief queen-“The Queen of the Diamond Palace” gave birth to a son. In his eighth regnal year he led a military expedition against Rajagriha. By that time the Indo-Greeks who were in possession of Mathura were advacing towards Pataliputra but getting the news of the triumph of Kharavela at Rajagriha the Yavana king had to retreat to Mathura. Kharavela pursued the Indo-Greeks and purged them out of Mathura which was an important seat of Jain religion and culture. In commemoration of this achievement he built a victory palace in Kalinga at a cost of thirty-eight hundred thousand penas during the ninth year of his reign. In the tenth regnal year he again invaded northern India the account of which is not clearly known. In the eleventh year of his reign Kharavela defeated the Tamil confederacy which was in existence thirteen hundred years before his time. In the twelfth year he invaded northern India for the third time and advanced as far as Uttarapatha, “north-western part of India”. On his return he terrorized Maghadha. Brihaspati Mitra, the king of Magadha surrendered and Kharavela brought from Magadha the image of Kalinga Jina as trophy of his victory alongwith rich treasures. Kalinga Jina had been taken away from Kalinga by Mahapadmananda three hundred years back and its restoration was considered to be a great achievement of Kharavela. In his thirteenth regnal year Kharavela excavated a number of cave-dwellings in the Kumari hills for the Jain monks and bestowed endowments for them. Jainism greatly flourished in Kalinga under the sincere patronage of Kharavala. He was also extending liberal patronage towards other religious communities and earned great reputation as the worshipper of all religious orders and the repairers of all religious shrines.

The Hatigumpha inscription records the activities of Kharavela up to his thirteenth regnal year after which nothing is known about him. He was probably succeeded by his son Kudepasiri. The Mahameghavahana dynasty continued to rule over Kalinga and Mahishaka up to the 1 st century A.D. as known from some recently discovered inscriptions of Guntupalli and Velpuru in Andhra Pradesh. The Velpuru inscription reveals the rule of one Airamaharaja Haritiputra Manasada who belonged to Mahameghavahana dynasty.

The Satavahanas and the Murundas

Early in the second century the Kalinga region was occupied by the Satavahana king Goutamiputra Satakarni. Kalinga remained under the Satavahanas probably up to the rule of Yajnasri Satakarni and after his death in 202 A.D. her history sank into obscurity for sometime. According to some scholars a foreign power called Murundas extended their suzerainty over Kalinga during the third century A.D. Mahrarja Rajadhiraja Dharmadamadhara whose gold coin was found from Sisupalgarh excavation is considered by Dr. A.S. Altekar as a Jaina king belonging to Murunda family which ruled over parts of Bihar and Orissa. The Bhadrak stone inscription of Maharaja Ganabhadra datable to the third century A.D. also indicates the rule of the Murundas in Orissa. The Puranas reveal that a king named Guha ruled over Kalinga, Mahishaka and Mahendra region about the end of the third century A.D. But the account of the Murunda rule is not clearly known to us.

The Murundas of Kalinga and Kushanas of northern India were ousted from power by the rising Naga dynasties of Kausambi, Ahichhatra, Padmavati and Vindhyatavi. The Asanpat stone inscription reveals that king Satrubhanja, the son of Manabhanja of the Naga dynasty who was ruling over Vindhyatavi defeated the Devaputras who were probably the Kushana-Murunda rulers. Samudragupta crushed the Naga power in his Aryavarta wars as a result of which the Guptas acquired suzerainty over northern India in place of the Nagas.

The Guptas

About 350 A.D. Samudragupta led his South India campaigns. He defeated king Mahendra of South Kosala and following the course of the Mahanadi attacked the kingdom of Kosala. He defeated king Mantaraja of Kosala and Vyagharaja of Kantara and marched further south to the plains of Kalinga region where he defeated king Swamidutta of Kuttura, king Damena of Erandapala, king Kuvera of Devarastra and Mahendragiri, the chief of Pishtapura. The claims of Samudragupta regarding his south Indian conquests are subject to doubt. No other Gupta kings who ruled after him are known to have come over south India.

The Matharas

Soon after the invasion of Samudragupta a new ruling power named Mathara raised its head in Kalinga. The earliest known Mathara king was Vishakavarman who started his politial career as an humble ruler of a small territory round about modern Parlakhemundi. He was succeeded by Umavarman who declared himself as Lord of Kalinga by his 30 th regnal year and made Singhapura his capital. He ruled for about 35 years and was succeeded by Sankaravarman in about 395 A.D. Maharaja Sankaravarman died after a short rule and was succeeded by his son Maharaja Saktivarman in about 400 A.D. Saktivarman was a powerful ruler who had extended his kingdom from Mahanadi in the north to the river Krishna in the south. He transferred his capital from Singhapura to Pishtapura in South Kalinga. He died in about 420 A.D. and was succeeded by his son Anantasaktivarman who ruled up to 450 A.D. Anantasaktivarman could not maintain the integrity of the empire inherited from his father. The Vishnukundin king Madhavavarman occupied South Kalinga as a result of which Anantasaktivarman shifted his headquarters from Pishtapura to Singhapura.

It appears that after the death of Saktivarman there was internal quarrel between his two sons Anantasaktivarman and Prabhanjanavarman which contributed to the weakness of the Mathara dynasty. Anantasaktivarman was succeeded by Chandravarman who was probably his son. He had a premature death after which Prabhanjanavarman, the brother of Anantasaktivarman came to the throne. He attempted to recover South Kalinga but could not succeed in bringing back the lost territory. He was succeeded by Nandaprabhanjanaverman. During his rule the Mathara power declined steadily. By that time the Eastern Gangas appeared in the Trikalinga territory and extended their power over the Kalinga Regions. The Mathara rule in Kalinga ended in 498 A.D. which was the initial year of the Ganga era.

The Eastern Gangas

The earliest known Ganga king of Kalinga was Indravarman I whose capital was located at Dantapura. He is said to have defeated the Vishnukandin king Indrabhattaraka. He was the first great ruler of the Ganga dynasty and started the Ganga era. His Jirajingi copper plate grant was issued in Ganga year 39, i.e. 537 A.D. The next king was Samantavarman whose grant is dated in the year 64 (562 A. D.). Like his predecessor Samantavarman assumed the title of Trikalingadhipati. He was succeeded by king Hastivarman who claims to have defeated his enemies in many battles and declared himself the Lord of all Kalingas (Sakala Kalinga). Hastivarman transferred his capital from Dantapura to Kalinganagar. He was succeeded by his son Indravarman II and the latter was succeeded by Indravarmanan III who is known to be a powerful ruler. He claims to have acquired proficiency in various sciences and arts. The next king was Devendravarman who had mantradikshya from Patangashivacharya who was learned in Veda, Vedanga, Itihasa and Puranas. He greatly patronized Brahminical religion and culture. He was succeeded by his son Hemantavarman I after whom his two sons Nandavarman and Devendravarman II ruled over Kalinga one after the other. The next important ruler of the family was Anantavarman II who did many works of public benefit. He was succeeded by his brother Devendravarman III who patronized a Brahmin poet (the name is not known) who was the son of the door-keeper of his palace. He was succeeded by his son Anantavarman III and after his two of his sons Rajendravarman II and Devendravarman IV became kings one after the other. The next ruler was Satyavarman, son of Devendravarman, who was a war like ruler. After his short rule his brother Anantavarman IV came to the throne. He was popularly called Vajri or Vajrahasta I. The next Ganga king was Maharaja Bhupendravarman. After his two sons Anantavarman V and Devendravarman V ruled one after the other. Anantavarman assumed the epithet Maharajadhiraja and was known as Vajrahasta II.

The rule of the first group of Ganga kings ended with Devendravarman V whose grant is dated in the year 397, i.e. 895 A.D. The account of the second group is known from the copper plate grants of Vajrahasta V. The genealogy of the second group is presented below:

• Gunamaharnava
• Vajrahasta III (son of No.I) ruled for 44 years
• Gundama I (son of No.2) - 3 years
• Kamarnava I (son of No.2) – 35 years
• Vinayaditya (son of No.2) – 30 years
• Vajrahasta IV also called Aniankabhima (Anangabhima I) – 35 years
• Kamarnava II (son of No.6) – half a year
• Gundama II (son of No.6) – 3 years
• Madhukamarnava (son of No.6) – 19 years
• Vajrahasta V (son of No.7) came to the throne in Saka year 960 (1038 A.D.)

The Nalas

Before the rise of the Eastern Gangs the Nala dynasty had established a kingdom in Trikalinga region comprising parts of the modern districts of Bastar, Koraput and Kalahandi. The capital of the kingdom of the Nalas was at Pushkari. The Podagarh rock inscription indicates that pushkari was situated close to the site of Podagarh in Koraput district. The earliest known ruler of the Nala dynasty was Vrishadhvaja who is known from a seal discovered at Bhita. It is suggested that the seal was carried to Bhita when Bhavadattavarman, the grandson of Vrishadhvaja, went on piligrimage to Prayaga where he donated grants to Brahmins. The date of Vishadhvaja may be fixed from circa 400 A.D. to 420 A.D. The next king Varaharaja was probably the son of Vishadhvaja. He was a powerful and independent ruler and had a prosperous reign. Out of 32 gold coins of the Nala kings discovered at Edenga in Bastar district, seven large size and twenty-two smaller size coins belonged to Varaharaja. He had been assigned to the period from circa 420 to 440 A.D.

Bhavadattavarman also called Bhavadattaraja was probably the son and successor of Varaharaja. During his rule there was conflict between the Nalas and the Bhakatakas and Bhavadattavarman defeated the Bhakataka king who has been identified with Narendrasena. The Bhakatakas capital Nandivardhana was occupied by the Nalas. Bhavadattavarman issued grants in favour of a Bhrahmin named Matradhyarya and his eight sons when he was at Prayaga with his queen. He was a powerful and a generous king. He was succeeded by his son Arthapatiraja. The Bhakataka king Prithvisena II, son of Narendrasena, defeated Arthapatiraja and ousted the Nalas from the capital Nandivardhana. He invaded Pushkari, the Nala capital, and destroyed it to a great extent. King Arthapati was probably killed in the battle. About 480 A.D. Skandavarman, the brother of Arthapatiraja, succeeded to the throne and restored the lost glory and prosperity of the Nala kingdom. But after sometime the Bhakatakas became very powerful under king Harisena who inflicted a crushing defeat on the Nalas. The Eastern Gangas rose to power in Trikalinga territory after the defeat and decline of the Nalas in that region.

The Parvatadvarakas

When the Nalas were ruling over Trikalinga region a dynasty named Parvatadvaraka established a kingdom in the region comprising parts of modern Balangir and Kalahandi districts located to the north of the Nala dominion. King Sobhanaraja of this dynasty is known from the Terasinga grant issued from Parvatadvaraka, the capital. The next ruler was Maharaja Tustikara who was a devoted worshipper of Goddess Stambhesvari. The capital Parvatadvaraka has been identified with Asurgarh in Kalahandi district where an archeological excavation was made in 1973 by Dr. N.K. Sahu who brought to light important antiquities including a circular brick structure which was probably the temple of Goddess Stambhesvari. The excavation revelaed that the capital Parvatadvaraka was deserted in the 5 th-6 th century A.D. In fact, the Tarasinga Plates also suggest that the capital of the kingdom was transferred from Parvatadvaraka to Tarabhramaraka identified with modern Talbhramara on the bank of the river Tel. Not much, however, is known about this dynasty.

The family of Sura

Towards the end of the 4 th century A.D. Maharaja Sura established a kingdom in South Kosala region. We know about six generations of the kings of this dynasty from Arang grant issued by Maharaja Bhimasena II in 502 A.D. The kings of this family were

Maharaja Sura

Maharaja Dayita I

Maharaja Vibhisana

Maharaja Bhimhasena I

Maharaja Dayitavarman II

Maharaja Bhimasena II

The Arang grant of Bhimasen II was issued from the bank of Suvarnanadi which may be identified with the Son or Songada river flowing through the districts Kalahandi and Balangir. The village Vatapallika donated in this grant may be identified with Barpali of Sambalpur district.

The Vigrahas and the Mudgalas

In the later half of the sixth century A.D. the South Kosala region came under the rule of the Sarabhapuriyas. By that time the Kalinga trrriotory was divided into three parts. The South Kalinga with its capital Pishtapura was under the rule of the Durjayas, the middle Kalinga was under the Eastern Gangas, while the northern Kalinga known as Kalinga Rastra was being ruled by the Vigrahas. To the north of Kalinga Rastra extended the kingdom of Tosali which comprised the districts of Baleshwar, Cuttack and Puri. It was divided into two units Uttara Tosali and Dakshina Tosali, the river Mahanadi being the dividing line. This kingdom was under the rule of mudgalas.

During the later half of the sixth century A.D. there was serious fight between the Mudgala king Sambhuyasa of Tosali and the Vigraha king Prithvi Vigraha of Kalinga Rastra. About 600 A.D. Prithvi Vigraha was succeeded by king Loka Vigraha who called himself the Lord of Tosali. Very likely Loka Vigraha defeated Sambhuyasa and occupied southern Tosali. But about 603 A.D. the Vigrahas were defeated by Sambhuyasa who could reoccupy South Tosali.

The Durjayas

About the middle of the sixth century A.D. a chief named Ranadurjaya established his rule in South Kalinga with Pishtapura as his capital. His grandson Prithvimaharaja was a powerful ruler but he was defeated and driven out from Pishtapura by the Chalukya king Pulakesin II. Prithvimaharaja shifted to Viraja where he issued a charter in his 49 th regnal year. The Mudgalas of Tosali were very probably crushed by the Durjaya king Prithvimaharaja. The power of this king was subsequently destroyed by Sasanka who occupied some parts of Orissa during that time.

The Sailodbhavas

During the 6 th-7 th centuries A.D. a new dynasty called Sailodbhava ruled its head in the coastal region of Orissa extending from Mahanadi in the north to the Mahendragiri in the south. The territory was known as Kangoda mandala. The earliest known ruler of this dynasty was Sailodbhava who is described in the copper plate charters of the family as born out of rocks. After him Ranabhita also known as Dharmaraja I became the ruler. He was a feudatory chief under Prithvivigraha, the king of Kalinga Rastra.

Dharmaraja I Ranabhita was succeeded by his son Madhavaraja I also called Sainyabhita I. He was probably a feudatory of the Vigraha king Lokavigraha. He was succeeded by Ayasobhita I alias Chharamparaja. During his rule the polital condition of Orissa was extremely chaotic because of the struggle between the Vigrahas and the Mudgalas and after the defeat of the Vigrahas the conflict between the Durjayas and the Mudgalas and subsequently the advent of Sasanka to the political scene of Orissa. Taking advantage of the political situation Chharamparaja assumed independence but his son and successor Madhavaraja II became a feudatory chief under Sasanka. It appears that Sasanka conquered Kangoda about the year 615 A.D. when Madhavaraja II succeeded his father. The Ganjam grant of Madhavaraja issued in 620 A.D. declared him as a Mahasamanta of Sasanka who was by that time the overlord of Dandabhukti, Utkal as well as Kangoda. But by the time his undated Khordha grant was issued, Madhavaraja was an independent monarch and in that charter he called himself the Lord of entire Kalinga. In the Purushottampur grant issued in his 13 th regnal year Madhavaraja is described as the performer of a horse sacrifice and many other Vedic rites. From that time onwards he called himself Madhavavarman instead of Madhavaraja. By that time Harshavaradhana occupied Dandabhukti and Utkal and was making preparation to take possession of Kalinga and Kangoda. In the south the political power of the Chalukya king Pulakesin II extended up to the river Vansadhara which was flowing in the heart of Kalinga. The rivalry between Harshavardhana and Pulakesin helped Madhavavarman to maintain his independence. The situation did not change even after the defeat of Harsha by Pulakesin sometime before 634 A.D. but after the death of Pulakisin II in 642 A.D. the Chalukya power declined suddenly and Kangoda was occupied by Harshavardhana. Madhavavarman became the feudatory of Harshavardhana till 647 A.D. when Harsha died. Soon after that he again became independent. When he issued the Cuttack Museum plates in his 50 th regnal year we find him as a sovereign ruler of prosperous kingdom. He died about 665 A.D. and was succeeded by his son Madhyamaraja I also known as Ayasobhita II. The Parikud charter issued in his 26 th regnal year describes Madhyamaraja as a mystic person capable of talking with dead souls and as a strong man capable of running with two stout persons standing on his shoulders. He also performed Vedic sacrifices like Vajapeya and Asvamedha.

After the death of Madhyamaraja there was a war of succession between his two sons Dharmaraja and Madhavaraja. Madhavaraja was defeated in the battle of Phasika and Dharmaraja obtained the throne and performed his coronation. Madhava got the support of Tivaradeva, the powerful ruler of the South Kosala, and invaded Kangoda but the combined army of Madhava and Tivaradeva was defeated by Dharmaraja. Dharmaraja II was a powerful monarch and performed Vedic rites and sacrifices. His Queen Kalyana Devi patronized the cause of Jainism. He granted lands to Pravodhachandra, the disciple of Nasichandra, to promote Jainism in Kangoda.

After Dharmaraja II the power of the Sailodbhavas suddenly declined. Dharamaraja was succeeded by his son Madhyamaraja II. It was probably during his rule that the Sailodbhavas were driven out of Kangoda by the Bhaumas. Allaparaja who succeeded Madhyamaraja II was crowned as king outside Kangoda in the territory of the Eastern Gangas. He is described as the son of the uncle of Madhyamaraja II. He was succeeded by his grandson Madhyamaraja III. But nothing is known about the Sailodbhavas after that ruler.

The Bhaumakaras

The Sailodbhava Kingdom was osccupied by the Bhauma king Unmattasimha alias Sivakaradeva I who started the Bhauma era in 736 A.D. He was the son of Kshemankaradeva who was a Paramopasaka and Anugata which indicates that he was a devout Buddhist. In some Bhauma charters we find the name of another ancestor of Sivakaradeva I named Lakshmikaradeva, but very little is known about Lakshmikara and Kshemankara. Like his father, Sivakara I was a devout Buddhist. He defeated the king of Radha and married his daughter Jayavali Devi. He is known to have occupied both Kangoda and Svetaka territories. He was succeeded by his son Subhakaradeva I who was also a Buddhist by faith. Subhakaradeva fought with Gangas of Kalinga and became victorious but he had a miserable defeat at the hands of Rastrakuta king Govinda III. It is known from a Chinese record that in 795 A.D. he sent to the Chinese emperor Te-Tsang, a copy of Avatansaka along with an autographed letter.

Subhakara I was succeeded by his son Sivakaradeva II who was also a Buddhist ruler. His queen Mohini Devi probably built the Mohini temple at Bhubaneswar. After Sivakara II his brother Santikara I also known as Gayada I came to the throne. During his time the Ganesh Gumpha of Udayagiri in Khandagiri-Udayagiri hill complex was remodeled by a physician named Bhimata, son of Nannata who also built a monastery called Arghyakavarati at Dhauli hill. Santikara I was succeeded by Subhakaradeva II who was the son of Sivakaradeva II. He was also a Buddhist by faith. He ruled for a very short time and was succeeded by his cousin, Subhakara III. He was a powerful ruler and consolidated his rule over both northern and southern Tosali. He died without any issue at about 845 A.D. Then the burden of administration fell upon the widow queen of Santikara I. She was known as Gosvamini Tribhuvana Mahadevi I and belonged to Nandodbhava (probably Sailodbhava) family. She was the first woman ruler of the Bhauma family and had a successful and prosperous rule. After her, Santikara II, her grandson succeeded to the throne. His queen Hira Mahadevi probably built the temple of Sixty-four Yoginis at Hirapur on the bank of the Bhargavi. Santikara II was succeeded by his eldest son Subhakaradeva IV also called Kusumahara II. He married Prithvi Mahadevi, the daughter of king Janamejaya of South Kosala. Subhakaradeva IV died childless and was succeeded by his brother Sivakaradeva III alias Lalitahara. He was a follower of Saivism but patronized Buddhism. He died after a brief rule probably as the victim of court intrigue. After him Pritvi Mahadevi who was the widow of Subhakara IV became the ruler and called herself Tribhuvana Mahadevi II. Her brother Jajati I was then the ruler of Kosala and both brother and sister attempted to extend the rule of the Somavamsis of Kosala at the expense of the Bhaumas of Tosali. As the intertest of the Bhaumas was threatened by an intrigue of Prithvi Mahadevi she was ousted from power by a coup-de-main organized by the ministers and officers of Tosali and the Bhauma throne was occupied by the widow of Sivakara III who declared herself Tribhuvana Mahadevi III. She was a modest and magnanimous lady and was a devout Vaishnava like Prithvi Mahadevi.

After Tribhuvana Mahadevi III her two sons Santikara III and Subhakara V ruled over one after the other. The Bhauma rulers after Subhakara V were all women. His wife Gouri Mahadevi succeeded him and ruled for a brief period. She probably built the Gouri temple at Bhubaneswar. After a brief rule she was succeeded by her daughter Dandi Mahadevi who was a powerful ruler and maintained good administration throughout her kingdom. She remained a virgin throughout her life probably due to political reason and died premature death. She was succeeded by her stepmother Vakula Mahadevi who was a Bhanja princess. After her the Bhauma throne passed to Dharma Mahadevi who was the widow of Santikara III. She was also a Bhanja princess. She was the last Bhauma ruler and after her death the Bhauma territory was occupied by the Somavamsi King Dharmaratha (960 A.D. to 995 A.D.) the grandson of Jajati I.

The Mandala States

Some semi-independent principalities known as the Mandalas developed in between the kingdom of Bhaumas and the Somavamsis owing allegiance to the Bhauma rulers. The ruling dynasties of those Mandalas were (1) the Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala (2) the Bhanjas of Khijjinga Mandala (3) the Sulkis of Kodalaka Mandala (4) the Tungas of Yamagartta Mandala (5) the Nandodbhavas of Airavatta Mandala (6) the Mayuras of Banei Mandala and (7) and Gangas of Svetaka Mandala

A brief account of these dynasties is presented below.

The Bhanjas of Khinjali Mandala

The Khinjali Mandala comprised roughly the modern Sonapur subdivision of Balangir district and the Phulabani district. The capital was at Dhitipura identified with modern Boudh town. The earliest known Bhanja ruler of Khinjali was Silabhanja Deva also called Angadi. He was succeeded by his son Satrubhanja who is also known as Gandhata and Nettabhanja. He founded the town of Gandhatapati identified with modern Gandharadi near Boudh. He was a devout worshipper of Vishnu. After him his son Ranabhanja became the ruler of Khinjali. During his early career he was a devout Vaishnava and later on was inclined to Saivism probably under the influence of his queen Vijaya Mahadevi who was a Kadamva princess. Vijaya Mahadevi built the temple of Vijayasvara Siva in the village Vahirvada on the bank of the Mahanadi. King Rangabhanja built the twin temples of Sidheswara Siva and Nilamadhava Vishnu at Gandhtapati (Gandharadi).

It appears that Rangabhanja tried to become independent challenging the authority of the Bhaumas. During his time Janamejya, the Somavamsi king of South Kosala, invaded Khinjali Manda. As the Bhaumas did not come to his help Ranabhanja had to fight with his own resources against the powerful Somavamsa. He was defeated and killed in the battle field and the Sonapur and Boudh-Phulbani regions were occupied by the Somavamsis. Thereafter the Bhanjas shifted their rule to Ganjam region where they organized the new Khinjali Mandala with Vanjulvaka as capital.

The first king of the house of Vanjulvaka was Nettabhanja II alias Kalyankalasa who was a son of Ranabhanja. He was succeeded by the nephew Silabhanja II alias Tribhuvana Kalasa. After him his son Vidhyadharabhanja became the ruler of Vanjulvaka. He was also known as Amogha Kalasa and sometimes as Dharma Kalasa. His queen was Trikalinga Mahadevi who was probably a Somavamsi princess. He was succeeded by his son Nettabhanja III also known as Kalyan Kalasa and Prithvi Kalasa. His queen was Trikalinga Mahadevi who was probably a Somavamsi princess. His charters are dated in 197 Bhauma era equivalent to 933 A.D. He was succeeded by his nephew Satrubhanja II alias Tribhubana Kalasa in 934 A.D. The last known Bhanja ruler of Vanjulvaka was Bettabhanja IV alias Tribhuvana Kalasa whose charter is dated in Samvat 213 equivalent to 949 A.D.

The Bhanja rulers of Vanjulvaka had no significant role and very little is known about the history of this branch.

Bhanjas of Khijjinga Mandala

This Mandala comprised roughly the modern Mayurbhanj and part of Kendujhar districts. The capital was at Khijjinga Kotta identified with modern Khiching in Mayurbhanj. The earliest known ruler of this Mandala was Kottabhanja who probably established Kijjinga Kotta. He was succeeded by his son Digbhanja also known as Durjayabhanja and Ranabhanja who succeeded him one after the other. Ranabhanja was an important ruler of this dynasty whose charters are dated in Samvat 188 (924 A.D.) and Samvat 193 (929 A.D.). He was a devout worshipper of Siva and donated grants to Brahmins for propagation of Saivism. He was succeeded by his son Prithvibhanja alias Satrubhanja about Samvat 200 (936 A.D.). He was a powerful ruler and was inclined to Sakti worship. He was succeeded by his younger brother Rajabhanja who is known to have patronized Buddhism. It was during his time that Khijjinga Kotta was occupied by the Somavamsis of South Kosala.

The Sulkis of Kodala Mandala

Kodalaka Mandal roughly comprised the modern district of Dhenkanal. The capital town was Kodalaka identified with the modern village Kualo. The earliest known Sulki ruler was Kanchanastambha who was succeeded by his son Kalahastambha. This king defeated a chief named Dhenkata and assumed the title Vikramaditya. Hos son and successor was Ranastambha whose charter is dated in Samvat 103 (839 A.D.). He was a feudatory chief of the Bhauma King Subhakaradeva III. Ranastambha was a devout worshipper of Goddess Stambheswari. He was succeeded by his son Jayasthambha who was an ambitious ruler. He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja and probably challenged the authority of the Bhaumas. His son and successor Kulastambha II was the last known ruler of this dynasty. It was during his rule that the Bhaumas occupied Kodalaka Mandala and drove away the Sulkis. Kodalaka Mandala was divided into two political units, namely, Yamagartta Mandala and Airavatta Mandala. The Bhaumas allowed the Tunga and the Nandodbhava families to rule over Yamagartta Mandala and Airavatta Mandala respectively.

Tungas of Yamagartta Mandala

The Mandala comprised the northern part of modern Dhenkanal district. The capital was Yamagartta identified with the modern village Jamda. The earliest known ruler of Yamagartta Mandala was Jayasimha who assumed the administration of this Mandala before the rule of the Tunga family. His charter is dated in Samvat 128 (864 A.D.).

The earliest known Tunga ruler was Khadaga Tunga who came from Rohitagiri identified with Rotasgarh in Bihar. He was succeeded by his son Vinita Tunga who was a feudatory of the Bhauma King Sivakaradeva III. He was a devotee of Siva but extended his patronage to both Buddhism and Vaishnavism. The next Tunga ruler was Solana Tunga and after him his son Gayada Tunga became the ruler of Yamagartta Mandala. He appears to be a powerful ruler and patronized Bhrahminical culture. During the rule of the Bhauma queen Dandi Mahadevi, the king of Yamagartta Mandala was Apsara Deva. He must have succeeded Gayada Tunga but it is not clearly known whether he belonged to the Tunga family or not.

The Nandodbhavas of Airavatta Mandala

The Nandodbhava family ruled over Airavatta Mandala by the time the Tungas flourished in Yamagartta Mandala. The capital of Airavatta Mandala was at Jayapura identified with the village of that name in the south of Dhenkanal district. Jayananda the first known ruler of this family appeared to have founded Jayapura. Airavatta Mandala extended over the territory comprising southern part of Dhenkanal district, some western portion of Cuttack district and almost the entire Nayagarh subdivision of Puri district.

Jayananda was succeeded by his son Paramananda. After him his son Sivananda and then the latter’s son Devananda I became the ruler of Airavatta Mandala. We know almost nothing about the four rulers except their names.

Devananda I was succeeded by his son Devananda II also known as Vilasa Tunga. He was a powerful king and owed nominal allegiance to the Bhaumas. His charter was dated in Samvat 184 (920 A.D.). He was, therefore, a feudatory ruler under the Bhauma monarch Dandi Mahadevi. He was succeeded by his brother Dhruvananda whose charter is dated in Samvat 193 (929 A.D.). So he was a feudatory of queen Vakula Mahadevi. Dhruvananda Deva was a devout Buddhist and was known as Paramasougata. The Somavamsis occupied Airavatta Mandala in about 968 A.D. after which this Mandala formed a part of Odradesa under the Somavamsis.

The Mayuras of Banei Mandala

The Mandate roughly comprised the modern Banei sub-division and parts of Panposh subdivision of Sundergarh district. The Mayuras were a branch of the Maurya family. They are known to have emigrated from Chitrakota identified with Chitor in Rajasthan. The first Mayura king was Udita Varsha who coming from Chitrakuta established the rule of his dynasty in Banei region. His descendent was Teja Varsha who was succeeded by his son Udaya Varsha. This king was a Paramasougata meaning devout Buddhist. The Mayuras of Banei Mandala had close relation with the Bhanjas of Kalinga Mandala. The Bhanja rulers in subsequent periods accepted the peacock emblem of the Mayuras as their royal insignia. The name Mayurbhanj has been derived from the close relation between these two families – the Mayuras and the Bhanjas. Sometimes after Udaya Varsha the Banei Mandala was occupied by the Somavamsis of South Kosala.

The Gangas of Svetaka Mandala

Svetaka Mandala comprised the ex-zamindaris of Sana Khemundi., Bada Khemundi and Chikiti. The capital was Svetaka or Svetakapura identified with modern Chikiti. The earliest known king of Svetaka Mandala was Jayavarma Deva who was a feudatory of the Bhauma king Sivakaradeva alias Unmattasimha. He was succeeded by Anantavarman who appears to have challenged the authority of the Bhaumas. Anantavarman was succeeded by Gangaka Vilasa. The next ruler of Svetaka was Bhupendra Varman and after him his son Mahendravarman became the ruler. He was succeeded by his son Prithivarman. He had three sons of whose the second son Indravarman I succeeded him. When he died childless his nephew Indravarman II became the king Svetaka. The last ruler of this Mandala was Samantavarman whose charter is dated in Samvat 173 (909 A.D.) and Samvat 185 (921 A.D.). He was a feudatory of the Bhauma queen Dandi Mahadevi. After Samantavarman the Svetaka Mandala was occupied by the Somavamsi king Dharmaratha sometime in the third quarter of the 10 th century A.D.

The Sarabhapuriyas

The actual name of this dynasty is Amararyakula, but it is is generally referred to as the Sarabhapuriya. The capital was known as Sarabhapura which was established by Sarabha, the founder ruler of this dynasty. It is known from the Eran stone inscription that one Goparaja, the daughter’s son of Sarabharaja fought against the Hunas in support of the Gupta ruler Bhanu Gupta and lost his wife in the battlefield in 511 A.D. In the light of this it may be said that Sarabha founded the rule of his dynasty in Kosala towards the close of the 5 th century A.D. He was succeeded by his son Maharaja Narendra about 525 A.D. His copper plate charters were issued from the headquarters Sarabhapura. The next king known to us is king Prasannamatra who circulated gold coins inscribing his name on the obverse and with the figure of Gajalakshmi on the reverse. We find one king named Mahendraditya who also issued gold coins with similar motif. The similarity of the coin type and the area of circulation of the coin indicate that Mahendraditya was also a Sarabhapuriya king. He may be assigned after Maharaja Narendra and before Prasannamatra. The city Prasannapura was very likely founded by king Prasannamatra. He was succeeded by his son Manamatra who is also known as Jayaraja or Mahajayaraja. After him his eldest son Sudevaraja succeeded to the throne. His queen Rajya Mahadevi was patronizing Brahminical religion. He is known to have made land grants to nine Brahmins among whom was one Vishnuvamsi who had great influence on the royal family. It appears that after Jayaraja there was a fratricidal struggle among sons-Sudevaraja and Pravararaja, the latter being supported by the third son Vyaghraraja. When Sudevaraja was ruling from Sarabhapura, :Pravararaja established a new territory with a portion of the kingdom and ruled from the headquarters Sripura. Vyaghraraja became the Governor of Purvarastra with his headquaqrters at Prasannapura under his brother Pravararaja who was ruling from Sripura. The family quarrel of the Sarabhapuriyas was responsible for their ultimate downfall. After Sudevaraja his son Durgaraja succeeded to the throne of Sarabhapura. He was succeeded by his son Sudevaraja II. This king tried to weaken the power of the Sripura branch by soliciting help from the Panduvamsis of the neighbouring Mekala kingdom. There was close family relation between the Sarabhapuriya of Kosala and the Panduvamsis of Mekala.King Bharatavala of Mekala married princess Lokaprakasa of Kosala. Suravala, the son of Lokaprakasa, succeeded his father to the throne of Mekala. The Sarabhapuriya king Sudevaraja I was probably the maternal uncle of Suravala and it is therefore natural that Sudevaraja II got the help of Suravala in his attempt to gain back Sripura. Indravala who belonged to the royal family of Mekala was getting great honour from Sudevaraja II who made him a Mahasamanta. His son Nannaraja was also bestowed with great respect and honour. When Sudevaraja II died issueless his kingdom passed to the Panduvamsi family. It appears that Sudevaraja II was succeeded by Tivararaja, the son of Nannaraja about 700 A.D.

The Somavamsis

The Panduvamsis were known as the Somavamsis from the time of Tivaradeva who found the rule of his dynasty in South Kosala. Tivaradeva was an ambitious ruler. After consolidating his power over Kosala and Mekala he extended his authority over Utkal. By that time a fratricidal war took place in Kangoda between Dharmaraja and Madhava after the death of their father king Madhyamaraja. Tivaradeva supported the cause of the younger brother Madhava but the combined army of Madhava and Tivaradeva was defeated by Dharmaraja who occupied the throne of Kangoda. As a result of the defeat, Tivaradeva lost his hold over Utkal.

Tivaradeva was succeeded by his son Nannaraja who ruled for a brief period and was overtherown by his uncle Chandragupta. This king being advanced in age had a short rule and was succeeded by his son Harshagupta. About the middle of the 18 th century A.D., the Rastrakuta king Dantidurga invaded Kosala and defeated king Harshagupta who appears to have died in the battle. Valarjuna, the son of Harshagupta, was then minor. So after the death of Harshagupta the widow queen Vasata became the ruler of Kosala on behalf of her minor son. She was a devout worshipper of Purushottama Narasinha and built many Vishnu temples in Kosala. Her brother Bhaskaravarman patronized Buddhism in Kosala.

Valarjuna after attaining the age of majority became the king of South Kosala and patronized Saivism. He ruled for a long period as known from his Lodhia grant which is dated in his 57 th regnal year. His rule may be assigned to the period from 750 A.D. to about 810 A.D.

Mahasivagupta Valarjuna was succeeded by one Mahabhavagupta whose name is not known to us. He issued the Kisarkella grant in his eleventh regnal year. Mahabhavagupta was succeeded by one Mahasivagupta whose name also is not known to us and no charter issued by him has been brought to light.

The next king was Mahabhaqvagupta Janamejaya I who came to the throne about the middle of the 9 th century A.D. He was an ambitious king and conquered Khinjali Mandala which comprised the Sonapur-Boudh region. Ranabhanja, the king of Khinjali Mandala who has a rule for a period of more than 58 years fought with Janamejaya I and was defeated and killed by him. After this victory Janamejaya avoided the struggle with the Bhaumas who were the overall lord of the Bhanjas of the Kinjali Mandala by concluding a matrimonial treaty with them. Prithvi Mahadevi, the daughter of Janamejaya was given in marriage to Subhakaradeva IV, the Bhauma king of Tosali. Janamejaya had built a new capital at Aramakatak identified with Rampur near Sonapur.

Mahabhavagupta Janamejaya was succeeded by his son Mahasivagupta Jajati I about 885 A.D. He shifted his capital to Vinitapura identified with modern Binika on the Mahanadi. After sometime he built a new capital at Jajatinagar identified with modern Jagati on the Mahanadi near Boudh. During his rule his sister Prithvi Mahadevi became the ruler of the Bhauma kingdom of Tosali after the death of her husband Subhakaradeva IV. The brother and the sister attempted to extend the political suzerainty of the Somavamsis over Tosali kingdom but the officers and the feudatories of the Bhaumas went against Prithvi Mahadevi and installed Tribhuvana Mahadevi III, the widow queen of Sivakaradeva III on the Bhauma throne. Jajati I who was then busy with wars against the Kalachuris could not come to the help of his sister. He was, however, ultimately succeeded in defeating the Kalachuris.

After the death of Jajati I his son Bhimaratha became the king of Jajatinagar. He ruled for a long time and was succeeded by his son Dharmaratha about 960 A.D. It was during the rule of king Dharmaratha that the South Tosali was occupied by the Somavamsis. Dharmaratha also conquered Kalinga and Kangoda and appointed his brother Indraratha as Governor of those two territories which were jointly called Kalinga.

After the death of Dharmaratha his brother Naghusa became the king but Indraratha, who was the Governor of Kalinga, attempted to be the king of the Somavamsi territory. A civil war broke out between the two brothers in which Naghusa and his uncle Abhimanyu were killed. Chandihara Jajati, the son of Abhimanyu, fled from Kosala to save his life. After becoming victorious Indraratha ascended the throne of Jajatinagar in 1000 A.D. He was an able and ambitious ruler but he was defeated by the Paramara king Bhoja and also by Rajendra Chola. Very probably king Bhoja fought against him in association with Rajendra Chola. In the battle which took place in Jajatinagar, Indraratha lost his life.

After his death there was anarchy and confusion in South Kosala and subsequently Chandihara Jajati, the son of Abhimanyu was installed as the king.

Mahasivagupta Jajati II was an important ruler of this dynasty and his kingdom comprised Kosala, Utkal as well as Kalinga and Kangoda. He constructed the Lingaraja temple and his wife Kolavati is known to have built the temple of Brahmeshwar at Bhubaneswar.

Jajati II was succeeded by his son Udyota Kesari. During his time the Kalachuris of Tummana attempted to invade the western part of his kingdom. So Udyota Kesari created Bamanda Mandala and placed it in charge of a military officer named Sripunja. But Bamanda Mandala was subsequently lost to the Kalachuris. Udyota kesari was a devout Saiva and at the same time a patron of Jainism. He probably built the Jagamohan of Lingaraja temple. The Navamuni cave at Khandagiri was excavated by the Jain monk Subhachandra, a disciple of Kalachandra, in the 18 th regnal year of Udyota Kesari.

After the death of Udyota Kesari his son Janamejaya II succeeded to the throne. He fought against the Naga king Somesvaradeva. Yasoraja, the General of Somesvaradeva belonging to the Telugu Chola family occupied some parts of Kosala and establishesd there the rule of his family. Janamejaya II was also defeated by Vanapati, the General of the Ganga king Rajraj I. After the death of Janamejaya, his son Puranjaya came to the throne. He ruled for a brief period. He was succeeded by his brother Kamadeva about 1090 A.D. He was the last Somavamsi ruler of Utkal. During his time the Ganga king Chodagangadeva of Kalinga invaded Utkal and succeeded in defeating him about 1110 A.D. Kamadeva was, however, allowed to rule over the territory for sometime but subsequently, probably after the death of Kamadeva, Utkal was annexed to Ganga empire sometime before 1118 A.D.

The Imperial Gangas

The Eastern Gangas who started their rule in Kalinga about the end of the 5 th century A.D. continued as a petty power till the time of Vajrahasta V who came to the throne in 1038 A.D. As mentioned above he was the son of Kamarnava II by his queen Vinaya Mahadevi. He made Kalinga independent by defeating the Somavamsis and declared himself Maharajadhiraja. He also received the title of Trikalingadhipati. He made matrimonial alliance with the Kalachuris of Kosala and also with the ruling family of Ceylone. This helped him in consolidating the political power of his family. He was succeeded in 1070 A.D. by his son Rajrajdev I born of his queen Anangadevi. Rajarajdev was faced with his enemies, the Somavamsis of Utkal in the north and the Chalukya of Vengi in the south. By 1075 A.D. his Commander Vanapati of Vengi obtained victory over the kings of Chola, Utkal, Khemundi, Kosala, Gidvisingi and Vengi. The Somavamsi king Janamejaya II was defeated but succeeded in protecting his kingdom. By that time Kulattunga was the ruler of the Chola kingdom. By that time Kulattunga was the ruler of the Choloa kingdom. His General Daddarnava who was the Governor of Vengi was defeated and killed by Vanapati. Rajarajdev married Rajasundari, the daughter of Kulattunga who was then known as Rajendra Chola II.

Rajrajdev had a premature death in 1077 A.D. He left two young sons, the elder Chola Gangadeva being of two years in age. This young boy was crowned at Kalinganagar in February, 1078 A.D. Vira Choda, the third son of Kulattunga, was the Viceroy of Vengi till 1093 A.D. He was supporting the Gangas of Kalinga and in 1093 A.D., Chodagangadeva married Chodadevi, the daughter of Vira Choda. As a result of that Vira Choda was removed from power and expelled from Vengi by his father Kulattunga. Vira Choda was of great help to Chodagangadeva in his wars against Vengi and Utkal. The first war against Vengi was fought in 1093-94 A.D. in which the Gangas were defeated and the southern part of Kalinga was occupied by the Cholas. The second Vengi-Kalinga war took place in 1110 A.D. and this time also Kalinga sustained heavy loss. But Chodaganga was succeeded in his war against Utkal. Kamadeva, the Somavamsi King of Utkal was defeated in 1110 A.D. It appears that the wars against Vengi and against Utkal were fought simultaneously. Jayasimha, the Chief of Dandabhukti who was feudatory of Ramapala of Gauda, helped Kamadeva at the time of his defeat at the hands of Cholagangadeva, as a result of which Chodagangadeva allowed the defeated King Kamadeva to continue his rule as a vassal chief. After consolidating his power Chodagangadeva marched towards the north and overran Dandabhukti. After that he occupied the Sumha territory where he appointed his nominee Samantasena as ruler. Subsequently Samantasena founded the Sen dynasty in Bengal.

Kulattunga died in 1118 A.D. and with his detath the power of the Chodas began to decline. By 1118 A.D. Chodagangadeva annexed Utkal and Vengi to his empire which by that time extended from the Ganga in the north to the Godavari in the south. After the occupation of Utkal Chodagangadeva had to face with the powerful Kalachuri king-Jajalladeva who by that time had extended his power up to Suvarnapura of South Kosala. Chodaganga had a design to occupy the Sonepur region which was once under the rule of the Somavamsis. But he was defeated by the Kalachuri king Ratnadeva II, son and successor of Jajalladeva. In course of the war Purusottama, the General of Ratnadeva II, occupied Kalinga (modern Khiching in Mayurbhanj district). Chodagangadeva recovered Khijjinga but could not fulfill his deream of occupying Sonapur region.

Chodagangadeva supported the western Chalukyas against the Chola power in the south but Vikrama Choda succeeded in defeating the combined army of the western Chalukya king Somesvara III and Chodagangadeva. Because of these defeats the political power of Chodaganga declined for sometime. Taking opportunity of that there were rebellions against his authority in different parts of his empire. He, however, succeeded in suppressing the rebellions and in re-establishing his supremacy over the entire territory from the Ganga to the Godavarari by 1135 A.D.

Chodagangadeva like his ancestors was a great devotee of Siva. He was, however, found inclined towards Vaishnavism at times. The great Vaishnava, Acharya Ramanuja visited Utkal during his time. It is supposed by scholars that Chodaganga was converted to Vaishnavism by Ramanuja and constructed the temple of Purusottama at Puri under the influence of that Vaishnava Acharya. This, however, appears to be wrong because Ramanuja came to Utkal after 1122 A.D. and the records of Chodaganga after that date indicate that he was more inclined to Saivism then to Vaishnavism. Long before the conquest of Utkal by Chodaganga, Puri (Shrikshetra) was a place of worship of Purusottama and Chodaganga constructed the gigantic temple for the Lord to respect the religious sentiment of the people of the newly conquered territory rather than to obey the dictates of the Vaishnava Acharya Ramanuja. Chodaganga also constructed Vishnu temples at Mukhalingam, Srikakulam and Simhachalam.

Chodagangadeva died in 1147 A.D. and was succeeded by his eldest son Kamarnavadeva. The Ganga-Kalachuri war was continuing by that time and Kamarnava was defeated by the Kalachuri king Prithideva II, son and successor of Ratnadeva II. After the death of Kamarnava, the second son of Chodaganga named Raghava became the king in 1158 A.D. During his time poet Jayadeva is known to have composed his famous work Gitagovinda. Raghava died in 1170 A.D. and was succeeded by Rajraj II, the third son of Chodagangadeva. Next ruler was Anangnagabhimadeva II, the fourth and last son of Chodagangadeva. He was the only son of Chodaganga to have a son Rajraj III, who succeeded him after his death in 1198 A.D. During the time of Rajraj III, the Muslim power dominated over northern India from the Punjab to Bengal. Bhaktiyar Khalji, the first Muslim ruler of Bengal sent two Khilji Amins named Mahammed-I-Sheran and Ahmed-I-Sheran against Orissa in 1205 A.D. This was the first Muslim invasion of Orissa. Rajraj III defeated the Sheran brothers and killed many Muslim warriors.

Rajraj III died in 1211 A.D. and was succeeded by his son Anangabhimadeva III. During his time Ghiyathu’d-din Iawz, ruler of Bengal, invaded Orissa. Taking advantage of this invasion the Kalachuri king of Tommana also declared war and the age long Ganga-Kalachuri war continued. At this critical time Vishnu,.the General of Angnagabhimadeva III, not only repulsed the invasion of the Muslim but also decisively defeated the Kalachuris on the bank of the Bhima river and near the Vindhya hills. After his victory the Gangas occupied the Sonapur region. Anangabhimadeva III gave his daughter Chandrika in marriage to the Kalachuri prince Paramardideva. By that he could win the friendship of the Kalachuris who were of great strength to the Gangas in their war against the Muslims. Anangabhimadeva was also successful in his work in the south and his empire extended up to the mouth of the Krishna river. Anangabhima was a devout worshipper of Vishnu – Lord Purushottama. At the beginning he was the worshipper of three deities – Purosottama, Rudra and Durga but later on he extensively became a devotee of Purushottama. He dedicated his empire to God Purushottama and declined himself as His deputy.

Anangabhimadeva established a new city at the bifurcation of the Mahanadi and the Kathajodi which was called Abhinava Varanasi Kataka. By 1230 A.D. he transferred the headquarters to this new city where he constructed a big temple of Lord Purushottama.

Anangabhimadeva III died in 1238 A.D. and was succeeded by his son Narasimhadeva I. By that time Izzu’d-din Tughril Tughan Khan was the Governor of Bengal and had semi-independent status. Narasimhadeva, apprehending danger from him, mobilized his forces against his territory. Izzu’d-din Tughril probably anticipated this attack and in the war that took place he obtained initial victory but subsequently the Muslims were completely defeated with heavy loss. Izzud’d-din himself fled away from the battle to save his life. On his request the Sultan of Delhi sent Qamaru’d-din Tamur Khan, the Governor of Oudh to help the army of Bengal but before the arrival of Oudh army the War at Bengal hnd already ended. The next year (1244 A.D.) Narasimhadeva invaded Bengal for the second time and the Orissan army attacked Lakhnor, the headquarters of Radha, and killed the Muslim commander and a large number of his troops. Quar’d-din Tamur Khan quarreled with the Governor of Bengal at the time the Orissan army plundered the muslim territory. The leader of the Orissan army was Paramardideva, the son-in-law of Anangabhimadeva III, who struck terror among the Muslim forces.

The war with Bengal renewed in 1247 A.D. and this time also Paramardideva led the Orissan army and defeated Ikhtiyar Uddin Yuzbak, the newly appointed Governor of Bengal, but after getting assistance from Delhi, Yuzbak made offensive attack and advanced up to Umardan where Paramardideva was killed in the battle in 1255 A.D.

Narasimhadeva I was successful in his campaigns against the Muslims and humbled the pride of his enemy. Like his father he was a devotee of Lord Purushottama. He is remembered in history as the builder of the world famous temple at Konarka.

In 1264 A.D. Narasimhadeva I was succeeded by his son Bhanudeva I born of queen Sitadevi. During his time Narahari Tirtha the disciple of Ananda Tirtha (Madhdavacharya) had great influence in Orissa. He was even appointed as a Governor of Kalinga. During the rule of Bhanudeva, Chandrikadevi, the daughter of Anangabhimadeva I, constructed the Ananta Basudev temple at Bhubaneswar in 1278 A.D. That year Bhanudeva died and his son Narasimhadeva II was an infant. Narahari Tirtha worked as regent for long twelve years. Narasimhadeva II is known to have fought against the Muslims of Bengal the results of which were indecisive. His long reign from 1278 to 1306 was peaceful and eventless. He was succeeded by his son Bhanudeva II. R.D. Benerji states that one Purushottamadeva ruled Orissa up to 1312 A.D. making Bhanudeva II a prisoner in his palace. This is however not a fact. Purushottamadeva ruled over southern part of Kalinga as a feudatory of Bhanudeva II.

In 1321 A.D. Ghiyathu’d-din Tughluq, Sultan of Delhi, sent his son Ulugh Khan against Warangal and Telengana. After defeating these territories Ulugh Khan invaded Orissa. But seeing the organized army under the General of Sri Rama Senapati, Ulugh Khan avoided war. Ghiyathu’d-din Tughluq after reducing Bengal in 1324 marched towards Orissa but was repulsed by Bhanudeva II.

Narasimhadeva III succeeded Bhanudeva II in 1328 A.D. Very little information is obtained regarding his political activities. He was succeeded by his son Bhanudeva III in 1352 A.D. In 1353 Shamsud’-din Ilyas Shah invaded Orissa but he retreated after obtaining few elephants. It was by that time that Prince Sangama, the nephew of Bukkaraya I of Vijayanagar, invaded Orissa and defeated Bhanudeva III. As a result of this victory Bukkaraya occupied souther portion of the Ganga kingdom. In 1361 A.D., Sultan Firuz Shah Tughlaq invaded the Ganga kingdom. He defeated the forces of the Gangas and occupied Varanasi Kataka. Bhanudeva III fled away and took shelter with his family and courtiers in an island probably inside Chilika lake. Sultan Firuz Shah destroyed the temple of Purushottama built by Anangabhimadeva III and disgraced the idols. Bhanudeva III made a treaty with the Sultan by offering twenty big elephants and agreeing to give annual tribute. Thus during Bhanudeva III the prestige and power of the Gangas greatly declined. He died in 1378 A.D. and was succeeded by his son Narasimhadeva IV. During his rule Khwajah-i-Jahan, the Sharqi Sultan of Jaunpur invaded Bengal and Orissa. It was probably a mere raid.

By that time the Reddy dynasty in the south became powerful and Anavema Reddy marched up to Simhachalam. In 1381 Sangama II who killed Anavema Reddy also overran the Ganga kingdom up to Simhachalam. Narasimhadeva IV was further defeated by Kumaragiri Reddy twice in 1391 and 1398. Inspite of these defeats Narasimhadeva continued his hold over South Kalinga. At the beginning of the 15 th century A.D. there were civil wars in the Reddy kingdom, taking advantage of which Narasimhadeva organized the southern part of his territory against future danger from the side of the Reddys. Narasimhadeva IV was a devout worshipper of Siva but he was also a devotee of Purushottama.

He was succeeded by his son Bhanudeva IV in 1414 A.D. Ibrahim Shah, the Sharqi Sultan of Jaunpur invaded Orissa many times to obtain elephants. He was, however, subsequently defeated by Hussang Ghori, the Sultan of Malwa. It is said that Hussang Ghori came to Orissa in the guise of a horse dealer and captured Bhanudeva IV as a result of which Bhanudeva had to present him a number of elephants and purchased his release. This account, however, appears to be fictitious.

Bhanudeva IV was a weak and imbecile ruler. In 1435 he went to the South to fight against the Reddy power taking advantage of which Kapileswara Routray, the General, seized the throne and founded the rule of his own dynasty.

The Suryavamsi

Kapilendradeva belonged to the Solar dynasty. His ancestors were feudatory Chiefs under the Gangas. When he usurped the throne in 1435 A.D. many feudatory Chiefs challenged his authority. At the time of this internal danger Sultan Ahmed Shah of Bengal invaded Orissa but he was defeated by Minister Gopinath Mahapatra while Kapilendradeva suppressed the internal rebellion with strong hands. By 1443 A.D., Kapilendradeva succeeded in consolidating his power over the newly acquired kingdom but in 1444 he had to fight against the combined army of the Reddy of Rajamundry and king Devaraya II of Vijayanagar who invaded the southern part of his territory. Just by that time Mahamud shah, the Sharqui Sultan of Jaunpur invaded from the north. Faced with these two invasions Kapilendradeva gave his wholehearted attention to drive out Muslims from the north neglecting the south. Mahamud Shah was defeated and retreated from northern Orissa after which Hamvira, the son of Kapilendra, fought against the Reddy’s of Rajahmundry and scored a victory over them. Mallikarjuna, the successor of Devaraya II, the king of Vikayanagar, could not come to the rescue of the Reddys’ Hamvira, the son of Kapilendradeva, marched against Vijayanagar and defeated the forces of Mallikarjuna. By 1454 the whole of Kondavidu territory came under the possession of the army led by Hamvira. Udayagiri and Chandragiri, the two important territories, were occupied in 1460 and 1464 respectively. Thus Kapilendradeva could occupy almost the entire seaboard of Vijayanagar up to the Kaveri. Dakshina Kapilesvara, his grandson, was appointed as the Parichha of the newly conquered territory.

In 1448 Hamvira defeated the Bahmany Sultan Allauddin II after which this Sultan had friendly relation with Orissa. In 1457 Sultan Allauddin II helped Kapilendradeva in defeating Mahmad Khalji, the Sultan of Malwa. After the death of Allauddin II his son Humayun Shah invaded Debarkonda, the Chief of which sought help from Kapilendradeva. Hamviradeva defeated the Bahmany forces in 1459 as a result of which Telengana was occupied by Kapilendradeva and the Velama Chief of Debarkonda became his subordinate. In 1461 Humayun Shah was succeeded by his minor son Nizam Shah taking advantage of which Kapilendradeva invaded the Bahmany kingdom but by that time the Sharqi Sultan Hussan Shah invaded Orissa from the north and Kapilendradeva had to fight with him withdrawing his army from the south. Consequently the young Nizam Shah achieved victory over the enemies. After driving out the Sharqui Sultan from the north Kapilendradeva invaded the Bahmany kingdom and conquered Vidar and other important strongholds.

The last days of Kapilendra were not peaceful. His entire career was spent in wars and he acquired many enemies both inside and outside his kingdom. He chose Purushottam, his youngest son, to be his successor. So his heroic son Hamvira revolted against him. Kapilendradeva was a great devotee of Jagannath and constructed the outer walls of Jagannath temple. He died in 1468.

After the death of Kapilendradeva his son Purushottam born of a Brahmin lady called Parvatidevi succeeded to the throne. Hamaviradeva, the eldest son, could not accept the rule of Purushottam and revolted against him. The civil war continued for two years and when Hamvira was unable to defeat Purushottam who had popular support and the State resources at his command, he sought the help of Bahmany Sultan who deputed Hussan Bheiry to support Hamvira. In 1472 Hamvira with the support of Hussan Bheiry defeated Purushottam and occupied the throne. He gave Kondapalli and Rajahmundry to the Bahmany Sultan in return of his help. But Purushottam later on defeated Hamvira in 1476 and re-occupied the throne. A treaty was concluded between the two brothers according to which Hamvira was given the Khemundi territory to rule as a feudatory.

` After becoming king, Purushottam tried to get back Kondapalli and Rajahmundry from the Bahmany Sultan. He also tried to occupy the territory snatched away by Saluva Narasimha during the civil war. Purushottamdeva with a view to restore the lost territory mobilized his army against Sultan Mahmad Shah III Bahmany. He besieged Rajahmundry but without fighting any battle made an alliance with the Sultan. After that the relation between Bahmany and Vijayanagar became very bitter and stray battles took place between the forces of these two kingdoms. In 1481 Sultan Mahammad died and was succeeded by his young son Mahmad Shah. When the Bahmany kingdom was in chaotic condition Purushottam mobilised his forces and occupied Rajahmundry and Kondapalli. He further sent his army to occupy Udayagiri which had been taken away by Saluva Narasimha. Udayagiri was occupied and Saluva Narasimha was taken captive. Thus Purushottam could restore his power and glory during his last days and then devoted his attention for promotion or religion and culture. He died in 1497 A.D. and was succeeded by his son Prataprudradeva.

Prataprudradeva inherited a vast kingdom which was however fast declining. By that time the kingdom of Vijayanagar was rapidly rising as a rival of Orissa. In 1509 when Prataprudra led a campaign against Vijayanagar, Krushnadeva Raya had just succeeded to the throne of other kingdom, but before a decisive battle was fought Sultan Allauddin Hussan Shah of Bengal invaded Orissa and advanced as far as her capital. So Prataprudradeva was forced to give up war with Vijayanagar and rushed back to his capital. Sultan Hussan Shah was defeated and was driven back beyond the borders of Orissa. But in the south Krishnadeva Raya acquired an easy victory over Orissan army.

The victory of 1509 encouraged Krishnadeva Raya for making aggressive war with Orissa. He invaded Udayagiri in 1512 and occupied it after a seize of one and a half years. After that he invaded Kondapalli which was occupied in June 1515. The Orissan army retreated to Kondapalli which was also occupied by Krishnadeva Raya after a severe battle. The Vijayanagar forces marched up to Simhachalam where Krishnadeva Raya set up a pillar of victory in 1516. The victorious king returned to Vijayanagar in June 1516. The last war Krishnadeva Raya with the army of Orissa was fought in 1519 and this time also he came out victorious. Durinmg this last war he is said to have burnt the city of Katak.Subsequently a treaty was concluded between Orissa and Vijayanagar in August 1519. According to the treaty the river Krishna formed the southern boundary of Orissa. Krishnadeva Raya married Jaganmohini, the daughter of Prataprudradeva.

After the war with Vijayanagar was over Prataprudradeva faced the danger from the Sultan of Golkonda. Sultan Quli Qutab invaded the southern territory of Orissa and got initial victory, but subsequently he was defeated and driven out by 1525. Sultan Quli Qutab invaded Orissa for the second time in 1531 and occupied Kondapalli. The war with Golkonda continued even after the death of Prataprudradeva in 1533 A.D., when Govinda Bidyadhar came to the throne and continued a treaty with the Sultan of Golkonda.

Prataprudradeva succeeded in retaining his kingdom from the Ganges to the Krishna inspite of military defeats. During his rule Orissa made great advancement in the sphere of religion and culture. Sri Chaitanya who came to Orissa in 1510 preached the gospel of Vaishnavism and had a great impact on the religion and culture of Orissa.

Govinda Bidyadhar

After the death of Prataprudradeva his two sons named Kaluadeva (Ramachandradeva) and Kakharuadeva (Purushottamdeva) succeeded one after the other and ruled for less than two years. Both these brothers fell victim to the conspiracy of the minister Govinda Bidyadhar who occupied the throne in 1534 A.D. and founded the rule of the Bhoi dynasty. In 1540 A.D. the Sultan of Golkonda occupied Rajmahendri. Govinda Bidyadhar made a treaty with him and recognized river Godavari as the boundary between Golkonda and Orissa. By the time he was fighting in the south his nephew Raghubhanja Chhotray and Valmiki Srichandan revolted against him and occupied Cuttack. Mukunda Harichandan, the Governor of Cuttack, was defeated by them. Govinda Bidyadhar made a hurried peace with the Sultan of Golkonda and returned to his capital. He defeated his nephew who fled away to Bengal. Govinda Bidyadhar died in 1549 at Dashasvamedha Ghat of the Baitarani river. He was succeeded by his son Chakrapratap. He was a weak and cruel ruler and was very unpopular among the people. He died in 1557 A.D. He was probably murdered by his son Narasimha Jena who succeeded him and ruled for about a year. He was murdered by Mukunda Harichandan who placed Raghuram Jena, a son of Chakrapratap, on the throne and himself became the virtual ruler. Mukunda Harichandan captured the Minister Janardan Bidyadhar by an intrigue and impriosoned him in the Barabati fort where he died subsequently. Mukunda Harichandan declared himself as the ruler of Orissa in 1559 A.D.

Mukundadeva

Mukundadeva belonged to the Chalukya family. He came to the throne in 1559 by treachery and blood-shed. In 1560 Sultan Ghiyasuddin Jallal Shah of Bengal invaded Orissa and marched up to Jajpur. Mukundadeva defeated him and drove him out of Orissa. About that time one Afghan Chief named Suleiman Karrani occupied Bengal and became the Sultan. His rival Ibrahim fled to Orissa and got shelter under the protection of Mukundadeva.

By that time Akbar was planning to conquer Bengal and made alliance with Mukundadeva for that purpose. Mukundadeva received the Mughal ambassador and sent his own emissary to the Mughal court. Thus Mukundadeva became an enemy of Suleiman Karrani, the Sultan of Bengal. In 1567 when Akbar was busy in the invasion of Chitor, Sultan Karrani invaded Orissa. The Mughal Governor of Bihar, Munim Khan became indifferent and Mukundadeva resisted the invasion of Bengal singlehanded. He was defeated by the Sultan and took shelter in the fort of Kotsima, where Sultan Karrani besieged him. In the meantime, Bayazid, the son of the Sultan, led his army to Cuttack which was occupied by him. At that critical moment Ramachandra Bhanja, the feudatory of Sarangagarh, rose in rebellion. Mukundadeva made a treaty with Suleiman Karranim and marched against Ramachandra Bhanja. A battle took place in Gohiri Tikira near Jajpur where Mukundadeva lost his life at the hands of Ramachandra Bhanja. After that Ramachandra was defeated and killed by Bayazid and Orissa passed to the hands of the Afghans of Bengal in 1568 A.D.”

4. FROM 1568 A.D to 1947 A.D

In the history of Orissa the year 1568 is regarded as a dividing line between the glorious epochs of the past and the gloomy periods which followed thereafter. Through centuries from ancient times, Orissa maintained her political vitality with several powerful ruling kings at different periods, and she developed a political distinction of her own within the wider syndromes of Indian civilization. In the fields of art, architecture, religion, philosophy and literature, ancient Orissa made notable achievements and left for the future rich legacies of undying character. Orissa’s political strength was so spectacular even so late as 15 th century A.D. that during the rule of Kapilendradeva (1435-1466 A.D.) the Oriya armies threatened and attacked most powerful kingdom in the neighbouring regions as well as in the far south and established political supremacy over a vast territory outside the limits of geographical Orissa. Kapilendra ruled from Ganges in the north-east to Arcot in the south. His successors Purushottamdeva and Prataprudradeva, though not very powerful, retained their hold over an extensive territory, and during the rule of the latter from 1497 A.D. to 1541 A.D. his kingdom extended from the Hooghly and Midnapore districts of West Bengtal to the Guntur district of Tamil Nadu.

Political decline came soon thereafter all too suddenly. Internal turmoil, internecine wars and external invasions worked simultaneously to bring about the downfall of mediaeval Orissa. The Muslim ruler of Bengal, Suleiman Karrani succeeded in conquering the land in 1568, ending thereby the independence of this powerful Hindu kingdom which had resisted Muslim invasions successfully for three centuries. Orissa was one of the last of the Indian territories to succumb to the Muslim invasion though most part of the sub-continent had come under the Muslim rule much earlier.

Afghan Rule

With the victory of Karrani, Orissa came under the rule of the Afghans. But the new rulers could not establish their authority in the effective manner. In inaccessible areas, the local chiefs became powerful and enjoyed more or less independent position. The Afghans themselves had become by then a decedent force in Indian political scene to be able to consolidate their power in vigrour or certainty. Suleiman Karrani died in 1572. His son and successor Bayazid was murdered in no time, and Daud Karrani, his younger brother ascended the throne as the ruler of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. That was the time of the rule of the Mughal Emperor Akbar at Delhi who in his unlimited ambition, thought of subjugating as much of India as possible. Though the Afghan rulers of Bengal had earlier acknowledged the suzerainty of the Mughals, Daud assumed the role of an independent sovereign and defied the authority of Delhi. This led to the inevitable conflict between the Mughals and the Afghans in which Orissa became an arena for their battles. With the Mughal victory in Bengal, the Afghan forces withdrew into Orissa to fight for their survival. Akbar’s General, Raja Mansingh proceeded to Orissa to destroy the Afghan resistance. The operation continued from 1590 to 1595 resulting in the complete defeat of the Afghans. Orissa thus was acquired for the Mughal Empire and was governed as a part of the Bengal Subah for sometime.

Mughal Rule

Though Orissa came under the direct rule of the Mughals in theory, in practice, in large parts of Orissa, the Mughal rule could never be consolidated because of the nature of the topography of the land. Akbar was satisfied that the territory had been conquered from the Afghans and brought under the suzerainty, but he did not try to destroy the local Hindu chiefs who ruled in various places in their hillfastness and remote regions. Thus, in most parts of Orissa, local rulers enjoyed their autonomous authority and enjoyed semi-independent status. Akbar, true to his liberal policies and principles, even paid adequate respect to Raja Ramachandra Deva-I of Khordha, permitting him to enjoy the dignified position of a subordinate king. In matters of general administration, much of the indigenous systems were permitted to continue and even the land and revenue systems of Raja Todar Mal were introduced in conformity with the prevailing local practices.

During the rule of Akbar’s son and successor, Jahangir, Orissa was constituted into a separate province in 1607, with Cuttack as capital and placed under a Subahdar. This arrangement continued till the end of the rule of the Great Mughals.

One evil aspect of the Mughal rule was that the process of the disintegration of Orissa proper began from that time. The Mughals did not try for a political consolidation of the conquered territory. Akbar’s leniency towards Orissa princes gave them a semi-independent status. But that was a boon in disguise. The real difficulty however, arose from the negligence of the border territories of Orissa. The Qutub Shahis of Golkonda extended their power as far as lake Chilika during the first phase of the Mughal rule, and when their power was finally destroyed by Aurangzeb, the Mughals did not try to incorporate much of the southern areas into Orissa proper. Similarly, the Mughals did not attempt to exercise their authority over a large portion of western Orissa including Sambalpur. During the closing years of Aurangzeb’s rule, when Murshid Quli Khan-I governed as the Subahdar, a bigger portion of Midnapore district was taken away from the Jaleshwar Sarkar of Orissa and placed under the direct administration of the Bengal Subahder. In subsequent years, the river Subarnarekha was made the southern boundary of Bengal. A large portion of Orissa’s territory was thus detatched from the main land in the north-east. In the far south, the Sarkars of Rajmahendri of Kalinga Dandapat got separated from Orissa. Had not the Mughals resorted to this kind of dismemberment, the size of future Orissa as a territorial entity would have been much larger.

Within their immediate jurisdiction, the Mughal authorities did not enjoy political peace because of frequent revolts by Orissa princes. The rulers of Mayurbhanj, Kendujhar, Kanika, Khordha, and Khalikot, among others, did not consider the Mughals as their legitimate suzerain and defied the Subahdars with courage whenever opportunity came. The kings of Khordha, at the core of Orissa, were in continuous hostility towards the Mughal Governors, making the latter’s administration shaky and uncertain. The Mughal period of nearly two hundred years in Orissa was, thus, a period of confusions and chaos, affecting adversely the stability and prosperity of the land.

But it was during this period that the Oriya merchants carried on their brisk overseas trade and commerce as in earlier days and helped to maintain the prosperous economy of the country as before. Lured by Orissa’s economic potentiality the European traders in large numbers came for their trade settlements on the coasts of Orissa. The Portuguese, the Danish, the Dutch, the English, and the French found plentiful of commodities for markets outside. The Mughal administration permitted the Europeans for their commercial enterprise and activities. A number of sea ports like Baleshwar and Pipli flourished during the time as the centres of external trade.

Though the Muslims ruled Orissa for about two centuries, there was no attempt on their part at conveting the people to Islam in this particular region of India. First, the Muslim rule began here rather late when the earlier zeal for conversion was almost extinct. Secondly, the mediaeval Bhakti Movement had taken so deep a root in the Oriya mind that the new religious upsurge around the cult of Jagannath did not permit any external impact to any perceptible extent. This accounts for the existence of such a small percentage of Muslims in modern Orissa compared to other parts of India. The impact of Islam was, however, seen in the spheres of culture. Into the enlarging dimension of Oriya literature during the period, hundreds of Arabic, Persian and Urdu words made their way. The cult of Satyapir appealed to the popular imagination and rather became a widely prevailing faith. The famous Muslim poet, Sal Baig, composed numerous devotional poems to symbolize a Hindu-Muslim cultural synthesis. Some of the famous Muslim shrines like the Quadam-I-Rasul and the Bokhari Sahib of Kaipadar attracted both Hindus and Muslims for devotional purpose. In certain places like Bhadrak, the performance of Mughal Tamasha became a popular festivity. Orissa, in subsequent periods, presented a unique example of Hindu-Muslim unity with two communities living together in cordial fraternity, submerged in indigenous trait of culture and tradition.

When the Mughal Empire began to disintegrate, the Nazim of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, Aliverdi Khan, became virtually independent. But the Marathas, who played a major role in destroying the Mughal Empire, looked towards his territories with covetous eyes. Consequently, there began a long-drawn-out struggle between Aliverdi and the Marathas, which finally ended in the Maratha acquisition of Orissa.

Maratha Rule

The Maratha administration of Orissa effectively began from the year 1751. Raghuji Bhonsle-I became the new master of the territory and a new system of government was put into operation. In the estimate of the English historian Stirling, the Maratha administration proved fatal to the welfare and prosperity of the country and exhibited a picture of misrule, anarchy, and weakness, rapacity and violence. But some modern historians do not agree with such views and find some brighter aspects of that rule, though however, the general economic decline of the people became a conspicuous feature of the period concerned.

The Marathas divided Orissa into two broad political divisions passing under the more familiar terms as the Mughalbandi and the Garhjat. The Mughallbandi, comprising the coastal districts was divided into 150 Parganas and placed under 32 Revenue Commissioners or Amils. Each Pargana was divided into several Mahalas. For a systematic and better collection of revenue, hereditary revenue collectors titled as Talukdars, Kanungos and Chaudhuris were appointed. Attempts were also made to collect the revenue directly from the raiyats or through the village headmen. The administration paid attention to the welfare of the peasants in particular. While embankments were constructed to protect extensive cultivable lands against flood, the peasants were given at times remission from payment of land revenue when there was crop failure due to flood or drought.

The Garhjat region covering the hill tracts of Orissa was allowed to be ruled by 24 tributary chiefs, who paid light tributes to the Maratha Government. The chiefs were bound by engagements which permitted them their autonomy. They administered their respective areas, maintained their forces and enjoyed princeship by status, but side by side, they had to respect the Maratha Raja of Nagpur as their overlord. Against possible rebellions from their side, the Marathas maintained a big force at Cuttack. In brief, the Marathas relation with the Orissa chiefs was more effective and purposive than that of the Mughals.

The Marathas encouraged pilgrimage to Orissa from other parts of India, particularly in view of the growing fame of the temple of Jagannath. They made the piligrim tax a good source of their income. Extra attention was paid to uphold the sanctity of religious places and shrines. Grants were allotted for repair of temples. The temple of Jagannath was brought under direct management of the Government with special attention paid for its preservation and maintenance. The great festivals of Puri received sufficient patronage. The number of piligrims from northern, central and eastern India increased considerably because of such governmental steps. The monasteries and Mathas of Puri as well as of some other religious centres received help from the Maratha Government. These institutions were required to discharge specified religious duties for which lands were granted to them. In brief, the Maratha regime, inspite of other drawbacks, distinguished itself for patronizing religion and religious institutions and making Orissa a centre of attraction for numerous people of India. It goes further to the credit of the Marathas that they granted lands and paid financial help to some of the noted Muslim shrines in Orissa.

During the Maratha period, Oriya literature made a rapid progress, both due to local patronization of the princely chiefs and of the Maratha rulers. The Kavya and Padya literature, prose and biographical literature, Puranic and historical writings, besides devotional poetry, made great headway. Chaitanya Bhagavat of Ishwar Das, Chaitanya Mangal of Sadananda, Samara Taranga of Brajanath Bada Jena, and Kanchi Kaveri of Purushottamdeva were some of the notable works of the period. A number of Sanskrit works were also translated into Oriya by such literary figures as Krishna Singh, Kavi Gopal, Jaya Singh, Madhusudan Jayadev, Balabhadra Mangaraj and Keshav Charan Patnaik. Notable works were also written in Sanskrit. Naishadhiya Maha Kavyam and Usha Anirudha Natakam of Chaini Chandra Sekhar Rajguru, Gangavamsanucharitam of Rajguru Vasudeva Rath, commentary on Mrichha Katikam and Meghadutam of Maha Mohapadhyaya Narahari Panda, Bhanja Mahodaya Kavyam of Kavivara Nilakantha Misra and Braja Yuba Vilasa and Bhagavat Lila Chintamani of Kavi Bhusan Kamalalochan Khadgaraya were among the worthy Sanskrit works of the time.

The economic misfortunes of Orissa during the Maratha period arose out of the rapid decline of her external trade. With the rise of the British power in Bengal and in the Northern Sarkars and with their control of sea trade in Bay of Bengal, the export of grains and other commodities from Orissa as was carried on by Orissa merchants for a long past, declined sharply. The Maratha could not do anything to safeguard the maritime trade of Orissa. The internal trade of the land, however, was in a good condition because of the Maratha Government’s proper care for roads and canals.

The Marathas did some commendable work to provide facilities to travelers by constructing roads, planting trees, digging ponds, erecting rest houses, etc. They also experiminted with a postal service.

The Maratha rule lasted in Orissa for a brief period of half a century only. This period coincided with the rise of the British power in Bengtal. It was in the nature of historical developments that the foundation of the British Empire should not be followed by its expansion and the British were acutely conscious of that historical role for which they were destined. And, the British were thoroughly aware of the stragtegic position of Orissa, situated as the land between their emerging power in Bengal and Madras. They had come to Orissa as traders during the first half of the 17 th century A.D. and had established their factories, and had acquainted themselves with the land and its people, while simultaneously making assessment of the strength and weakness of the ruling powers.

British Rule

As early as 1633, the British established a trade centre at Hariharpur, one of the first of their settlements in India. Their subsequent establishment at Baleshwar on river Burhabalanga and at Pipili on river Subarnarekha developed into flourishing centres of trade as well as of power. According to William Wilson Hunter, the English historian, it was those two Orissa harbours which became the basis of the future greatness of the British in Bengal.

After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and Buxar in 1764 the ambition of the British empire-builders reached its logical height to acquire as much of Indian territories as possible, and Orissa being so near to Bengal automatically came under the orbit of that design. When Lord Clive acquired the Dewani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa from the titular Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II on the 12 th August, 1765, the ‘Orissa’ of that transaction meant only the district of Midnapore. The real Orissa at that time was in the possession of the Marathas. Clive with his shrewd understanding of the importance of Orissa as a link between Bengal and Madras, opened negotiation with the Maratha power to get possession of the land by peaceful means. Within a year of the grant of the Dewani he sent his emissary Thomas Motte to meet Bhawani Pandit, the Maratha Subahdar at Cuttack. The message was that the Bhonsla Raja Janoji should better handover Orissa to the East India Company and receive adequate money for the transfer. The Maratha rulers paid a deaf ear to such a preposterous proposition.

Clive’s successor in Bengal, Warren Hastings tried to persuade Janoji’s successor Madhoji Bhonsla to reconsider the issue. The negotiation failed again, though the Maratha ruler permitted the movement of the British troops through Orissa towards the south, under the command of Colonel Pearse. Lord Cornwallis adopted the same policy of persuasion, but achieved no result. Madhoji’s successor, Raghuji Bhonsla II, however, was made to agree to permit the British troops to pass through Orissa once again during the Third Mysore War. The British failed to get Orissa through diplomacy, but their soldiers could see and know Orissa during their movements for future need.

Lord Wellesley, the aggressive Governor-General who came to convert the British Empire in India into the British Empire of India, decided to acquire Orissa by war. The second Maratha War gave him that opportunity. The conquest of Orissa was achieved in 1803 without any difficulty. With their previous knowledge of the topography of the land and finding no effective resistance from the Maratha army, the British took only a month’s time from 14 September to 14 October, to complete their work of conquest. The British Generals who were placed in charge of the operation were strictly instructed by Wellesley to adopt a conciliatory attitude towards the people so as not to arouse popular antipathy against the foreigners. Aware of the significance of the temple of Jagannath and its religious sway on the popular mind, as well as of the deep attachment of the Oriya people towards their religious institutions, the Governor-General ordered, ‘You will understand that no part of the property, treasure or valuable articles of any kind, contained in the pagoda of Jaggernaut or in any religious edifice, or possessed by any of the priests and Brahmins, or persons of any description attached to the temples of religious institutions is to be considered as prize to the army. All such property must be respected as being consecrated to religious use by the customs or prejudices of the Hindus”. Wellesley further instructed the invading Generals not to demand total submission from the semi-independent tributary chiefs, and to try to win over the zamindars who were not happy with the Marathas. The policy worked well. Puri was occupied without bloodshed. Cuttack with the fort of Barabati fell to the invaders without any determined resistance from the Maratha forces.

The treaty of Deogarh, signed on 17 December 1803, ended the Maratha rule and inaugurated the British Rule in Orissa. Raghuji Bhonsla surrendered to the British ‘in perpetual sovereignty, the province of Cuttack including the port district of Balasore.’ The Garhjats, termed as the Tributary Mahals of Orissa, numbering at that time sixteen only, also came under the company’s authority. Orissa in fact had been much truncated and reduced in size and population when the British rule began. It contained only the three coastal districts of Baleshwar, Cuttack and Puri, and the sixteen Tributary Mahals (the number increased to 18 in 1837) in the hill tracts. The total area of Company’s Orissa was 61916.7393 sq.km. (23,907 square miles) of which the Tributary Mahals covered an area of 41914.9416 sq. km. (16,184 square miles). Several Oriya -speaking religions lay outside on the immediate borders of British Orissa. The economy of this linguistic separation can be realized from an estimate of G.A. Grierson who wrote in his famous work, the Linguistic Survey of India, at the close of 19 th century that Oriya is the language of Orissa proper and of the surrounding country extending over an approximate area of 212371.8 sq. km. (82,000 square miles)”.

Though the British conquest of Orissa proved to be an easy affair, the consolidation of the territory proved itself much more difficult because of the defective land revenue and administration systems which the new rulers initiated. Within a few years, therefore, there broke out a rebellion against the British, famous as the Paik Rebellion of 1817.

The rebellion broke out in Khordha, and spread to surrounding areas. The cause of this insurrection was the defective administration with which the new rulers began their regime. The traditional warrior class of the area, known as the Paiks, were in possession of their hereditary lands by virtue of their earlier role in the services of the former Hindu rulers. The new administration, under Major Fletcher, forfeited those lands and thereby ruined the economic life of a martial people. “Deprived, thus of the lands which they had enjoyed from time immemorial”, wrote G.Toynbee, the British historian “they were subjected to the grossest extortion and oppression at the hands of the farmers, sarbarakars and other underlings to whom our Government entrusted the collection of the revenue, and also to the tyrannies of a corrupt and venal police”.

The leader of the rising was Bakshi Jagabandhu, a former General of the armed force of the Khordha Raja. Deprived of his own landed estate and reduced to the condition of a pauper, he took advantage of the general discontent among the Paik population and with the support of a large number of distressed Khonds from Ghumusar, he raised the standard of a serious revolt. The Government establishments, police-stations, and treasuries were attacked, plundered and destroyed. The British troops suffered initial reverses with one of their Commanders, Lieutenant Faris, killed. The rebel forces reached Puri on 12 th April, 1817 and caused considerable destruction to official property, and drove out the Government troops and officers. The success of the rebellion inspired confidence in the discontented elements at other places. The Rajas of Kujang and Kanika, too, came under the suspicion of the British for rebelious activities. In September, British troops were dispatched to Kujang where, after an encounter, the Raja surrendered himself to Captain Kennet in October.

Vigorous military measures were taken by the British to reconquer the lost places and restore order. The rebellion ended by the end of October 1817 though its leader evaded the British for long till at last he surrendered himself in 1825 and became a prisoner at Cuttack. The Bakshi died in 1829.

The paik rebellion gave a rude shock to the British Government, but at the same time made it realize that its polices required thorough modifications. The responsibility of this reorientation fell upon the newly appointed Commissioner in Cuttack, Robert Ker. But, tragically enough, for various factors, Orissa’s economic vitality declined rapidly during the British rule and the Government paid scant attention to the condition of the people. In fact, the people of the princely states were left to themselves to suffer in their separated existence, and the coastal belt under the direct rule was regarded chiefly as a land route between the two presidencies of Bengal and Madras, as if without deserving any special consideration for developments.

During the Revolt of 1857, Orissa’s princely order could not join the movement in any organized or effective manner, through Sambalpur region showed a spectacular upsurge under Surendra Sai to shake the British rule in western Orissa. It goes to the credit of the remarkable hero and his daring followers that while the revolt everywhere in India subsided within a brief period, it continued to linger in inaccessible areas of western Orissa for years, till Surendra Sai was arrested in January, 1864. The daring activities of Chandan Hajuri, a panda of the sepoys from Puri called for a good deal of alertness from the Government to prevent the revolutionary movements in Orissa. With considerable influence on the sepoys, this priestly messenger of the revolution carried his secret mission to create dissatisfaction against the Government. He was arrested in Bihar, and was released after the declaration of amnesty by Queen Victoria in November, 1858. During this period Ramakrushna Samantasinghar, the ex-Zamindar of Balia (Pragana Burgan, Thana Jajpur) had revolted against the British rule and had persuaded the local ryots not to pay rent to the Company’s Government. He along with some of his followers was arrested and put into prison under the charge, ‘Conspiracy to rebel and wage war against the East India Company”. Ramakrushna Samantasinghar was sentenced to five years rigorous imprisonment for ‘seditious conduct’ and his property was confiscated. After the declaration of amnesty in November 1858 he was released from prison and his property was restored.

Within eight years of the transfer of power from the East India Company to the British Crown, Orissa came under one of the worst calamities in her history. It was the infamous Na’anka Famine of 1866-67. The East India Company had done almost nothing to improve communication system in the territory during the 55 years of its indifferent administration. The only road which connected Orissa with Calcutta remained unmetalled and unbridged through several large rivers followed to the sea and kept the belt under inundation for months in every year. Whatever communication the people of Orissa maintained in earlier days by sea with the outer world had been totally destroyed by the British Orissa was, thus, an isolated patch of land from the rest of the country. Speaking about this feature, the Famine Commission reported: “The famine in Orissa stands almost alone in this, there was almost no importation, and the people shut up in a narrow province between pathless jungles and an impracticable sea, were in the condition of passengers in a ship without provision.’ A failure of rain in 1865 resulting in the loss of usual crops brought about a famine which could have been met with successfully had there been facilities for transportation.

The famine which began to show its symptoms from October, 1865 revealed in no time the total failure of the administration to realize the situation. Indifference of the officers, failure to import food, economic policy of laissez-faire and wrong conclusions regarding the nature of the impeding calamity led to disastrous consequences all too suddenly. The actual area of intense famine was not too large and the period of its intensity was limited to half a year of 1866 only. But failure to meet the emergency by the authorities led to a mortaility of one million. Nearly one man in every three in Orissa died in the famine.

Sir Stafford Northcote, the then Secretary of State for India summed in the British House of Commons: “The castastrophe must always remain a monument of our failure, a humiliation to the people of this country, to the Government of this country and to those of our Indian officials of whom we had perhaps been a little too proud”. To guard against the failure, the President of the Famine Commission Sir George Campbell, recommended for efficient means of communication as, the best means of prevention”,security of tenures for cultivators, and irrigation within reasonable limits’. The Orissa Famine of 1866 worked as a lesion to the British to think of the Indian famines in a wider perspective and find out ways and means how to meet the challenge whenever they occurred anywhere in the sub-continent.

Orissa took time to recover from the effects of the Great Famine. The British, too, were obliged to pay some attention atleast towards the development of the area. But, the real significance of the post-Na’anka era in 19 th century was that a new consciousness was beginning to take shape amonmg the thiking minds of the rising generation who thought it to be their imperative duty to work for a regeneration from within. The East India Company had neglected the education of the people to the worst extent. At the close of its rule, Orissa possessed only three Zilla Schools in the district headquarters of Baleshwar, Cuttack and Puri hjaving a total of 282 pupils only. A few schools run by the Christian missionaries and some of the vernacular schools were doing their little bit to meet the needs, by every effort in educational direction was at its lowest degree. It was just after the Famine, in 1867, that the Government raised the status of the Cuttack Zilla school to that of a High English school, affiliated to Calcutta University. It became a college in 1876/ It is from such narrow scopes fofr modern education that the pioneers of Oriya renaiscance of the late 29 th century came forward for their role. A notable product of the new education was Utkal Gourab Madhusudan Das, the first graduate of Orissa who took B.A. degree from Calcutta University in 1870, M.A. degree in 1873, and a degree in Law in subsequent years. His ideas about the regeneration of his country,em made him one of the foresmot leaders of moden Orissa.

The modern cnsciousness also took shape through the role of the press. It goes the credit of the Christian missionaries to have established a press a Cuttack in 1838, famous as the Orissa Mission Press. In course of time, publishing agencies came forward to publish journals and periodicals to englighten the people with contemporary ideas. The foremost among such publications was the Utkal Dipika (1866) which came to influence the public opinion during the later decade of 19 th century. Gouri Sankar Ray, its renowned editor, championed the cause of reform through his own writings and writings of others. A little, later, from Baleshwar were puiblished Bodha-Dayinee and SamvadVatika and subsequently the Sambalpur Hitaishini from Bamanda to educate the conscious people in various socio-political issues. Utkal Hitaishini (18690, another journal of considerable importance, played as conspicuous role in educating the people. There were also notable literacy journals like Utkal Darpana (1873) and Utkal Madhupa (1878) to create a spirit of literacy revival among the thinking mkinds.

The new consciousness found its expression in the literacyn activities of some of the eminent writers who herealded the growth of modern Oriya literature. Fakir Mohan Senapati (1843-1918) and Radhanath ray (1848-1908) gave a tremendous impetus to Oriya literature through their numerous works. An All-Orissa phenomenon of literacy resurgence became the new characteristic of the age through the writings of Madhusudan Das, Biswanath Kar, Ramasankar Roy, Gangadhar Meher and Nanda Kishore Bala. These literacy luminaries covered a wide range of subjects to gtive to literature its new modern shape in the perspective of the wider literacy developments all over the world. In the emergence of modern Orissa, the role of her man of letters became the solid foundation for the future edifice.

Another remarkable feature of the later half of the 19 th century was the rise of several socio-economic and cultural societies all over Orissa for the purpose of promoting the mental vision of the people and to bring about a cohesion for welfare activities. Among those societies the Mutual Improvement Society of Cuttack (1859), the Utkal Bhasoddipani Samaj of Cuttack (1867), The Utkal Bhasa Unnati Vidhayini Sabha of Baleshwar (1866), the Utkal Brahma Samaj (1869), the Ganjam Utkal Hitavadini Sabha of Berhampur (1872), the Utkal Sabha (1877), the National Society of Baleshwar (1878), the Utkal Hitaishini Sabha of Paralakhemundi, the Utkal Sahitya Sammilani (1886), and the Graduate and Undergraduate Association of Cuttack (1890), played noteworthy role. In the cities and towns, the educated people, usually coming from middle class families got imbibed with literacy, social, religious and political ideas.

By the time the Indian National Congress was born in 1885, the conscious minds of Orissa were ready for appropriate responsive role in the promotion of the Congress ideologies and programmes. Within a few weeks of the first Congress Session, the Oriya leaders met at Cuttack on 3 rd March 1886 to chalk out their future plans in support of the Congress resolutions. In December of the same year, the Utkal Sabha and the National Society sent their delegates numbering seven to attend the second session of the National Congress. Every year thereafter, representatives from Cuttack attended the Congress Sessions to uphold actively the cause of the National Movement. Leaders like Madhusudan Das and Gouri Sankar Ray popularized the Congress principles among the patriotic people of Orissa during the last decade of the 19 th century, Orissa, thus, joined the main stream of the national life right in time.

Side by side with the national awakening, the unlightened minds of Orissa took up the vital cause of re-making Orissa into a substantial territorial and administrative entity in the Indian body politic. Dismembered and divided, the Oriya-speaking people had no solidarity as a people to rise to the expected height in the country’s national existence. A movement in this direction thus became impressive for the makers of modern Orissa. Supported by public opinion in and outside the then truncated British Orissa, a spontaneous collective leadership soon emerged to recreate Orissa to its proper shaope.

This movement had a background. The Oriya people who had been placed under different administrations outside Orissa suffered discrimination in many ways and developed a strong desire to merge with Orissa proper. As early as 1870, at Bhanjanagar in the district of Ganjam, a most representative mass meeting of the Oriya people from numerous areas in the south was convened in order to express their resentment against the introduction of Telugu language in those areas and non-employment of the Oriyas in administration, and voiced their strong desire for transfer of their territories to the Orissa Division. They issued appeals to their brethren in Cuttack to take up the cause and plead with the Governor-General for the Union of Oriya-speaking areas. “By doing this,” they pleaded, “the Oriyas of Cuttack Division would win immortal glory. The friends of the poor would try to help the poor and this assurance would give a feeling of joy and surprise to the sufferers.’ The Oriyas of Ganjam formed an association named as the Ganjam Utkal Hitabadini Sabha, to promote the cause of amalgamation. In 1874, in a large congregation of the native chiefs, landlords and the leading persons, the problem of Oriya-speaking people was discussed with the ulterior objective of union. In 1877, when the Utkal Sabha was formed by such leading minds as Madhusudan Das, Fakirmohan Senapati and Radhanath Ray, the idea of a greater Orissa began to take shape. By the time Utkal Gourab Madhusudan formed the famous Orissa Association in 1882, grounds were prepared for a move to draw the attention of the Government towards the problem of the Oriyas. The first step in this direction was taken in 1988, when the leaders of Orissa presented a memorandum to the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal, Steuart Colvin Barley, when he visited Orissa in November, urging upon the need for uniting the Oriya-speaking areas of Madras, the Central Provinces and Bengal under one administration. The request was, however, rejected forthwith. A few years later, in 1895 when the Government of the Central Provinces took a decision to abolish the Oriya language from official use in Sambalpur, Lord Elgin. In 1901, a deputation from Sambalpur pointed it out to the Chief Commissioner of the Central Provinces, Andrew Fraser, that “if it was thought impossible to have Oriya as the language of one Central Province’s district they would prefer it to be transferred to Orissa’. The Oriya leaders of Sambalpur met the Governor-General at Simla in this connection and ultimately secured the restoration of Oriya as the official language of the Sambalpur district.

In 1902, the leading citizens of Ganjam, describing their area as ‘a limb separated from the body’ appealed to the Governor-General Lord Curzon “to bring together the scattered divisions inhabited by Oriya-speaking peoples, i.e., Ganjam in Madras, Sambalpur in the C.P. and Orissa in Bengal, under the Government of Bengal or under any one Government”. The same year, Raja Baikhunta Nath De of Baleshwar appealed to Lord Curzon to constitute a separate administrative unit for all Oriya-speaking territories.

Out of such sporadic attempts finally there emerged a political movement to units all the Oriya-speaking areas under one administration. In the capital of Orissa, Cuttack, the representatives of the Oriya-speaking territories that lay outside such as Ganjam, Sambalpur and Midnapore, gathered on the closing days of December 1903 and doing with the leading Oriyas of Orissa proper formed an organization that became famous as the Utkal Sammilani on the Utkal Union Conference. The native chiefs, prominent landlords, lawyers, government servants and students took a prominent part in forming this organization to campaign the cause of a united Orissa under the able leadership of Madhusudan Das. A memorandum was submitted to the Government to transfer all the Oriya-speaking tracts as situated in other provinces to the Orissa Division.

The first result of this ‘Oriya Movement’ was the transfer of Sambalpur district to Orissa in September, 1905, followed by the transfer of the ex-states of Gangpur and Bonai (Banei) from Chota Nagpur Division and the ex-states of Patn,a Kalahandi, Sonepur (Sonapur), Bamra (Bamanda) and Rairakhole (Radhakhol) from the Central Provinces. Lord Curzon, the Governor-General understood the problems of the Oriya people in a judicious manner in spite of many difficulties created by his subordinates.

In 1911, the Governor-General Lord Hardinge, in order to solve the problem of the partition of Bengal, brought out his scheme of creating a new province consisting of Bihar and Orissa including Chota Nagpur. Opposing the idea of keeping Orissa with Bihar, Lord Curzon said in British Parliament “This is a blunder that cannot remain permanent. Were the Orissans an agitating people, which they are not, they would soon make their protest heard. As it is, they have been sacrificed without compunction.”

The movement continued till the goal was reached. On the April, 1936, the new province of Orissa came into being. But the Garhjats numbering 25 remained under the princely houses, thus making the administrative union incomplete. It is with the independence of India that the princely states were amalgamated with the exception of Seraikela and Kharsawan. It may be saisd here that the creating of linguistic states which became a prominent feature of the post-independence India, saw its conceptual beginning as well as ultimate success in Orissa during the days of the national movement. Further it goes to the credit of the leaders and the people of Orissa that while conducting their movement for a linguistic province, they did not in any way fall apart from the main stream of national life for the growth of Indian nationalism as well as struggle for independence. In fact, in the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress in December, 1920, the issue of linguistic identity was approved by the Congress which agreed that Orissa should form a separate Congress committee to be stayed as the Utkal Pradesh Congress Committee.

Freedom movement

Simultaneous with the movement for its territorial unity, Orissa marched o the path of freedom struggle with the rest of India for national independence. Right from the Swadeshi Movement of 1905-1910 the practice of the land felt inspired for the cause of the country and developed anti-British feelings rapidly. By the side of the first World War, anarchical philosophies had taken root in Orissa. In the town of Baleshwar and in the Kaptipada forest areas in Mayurbhanj district, the Bengal territories with the active assistance of Oriya inhabitants worked for anti-Government activities in a daring spirit. The leading territories like Jatin Mukherji alias Bagha Jatin, Manoranjan Sengupta, Nirendra Dasgupta, Shasanka Sekhar Mukherji, Atal Behari Acharya and Bairagi Tripathy aimed at biggter conspiracies which, however, could not succeed.

By the end of the War, Utkalmani Pandit Gopabandhu Das emerged for a remarkable role in promoting the Congress Movement in Orissa. A generation of youthful patriots soon arose to champion the national movement and to carry the spirit of the struggle to the people at large. Among them were men like Harekrushna Mahtab, Gopabandhu Choudhury, Nabakrushna Choudhury, Bagirathi Mahapatra, Jagabandhu Singh, Mukunda Prasad Das, Nityananda Kanungo, Jadumani Mangaraj, Niranjan Patnaik, Dibakar Patnaik, Chandra Sekhar Behera, Nanda Kishore Das, Raj Krushna Bose and others. Pandit Gopahandhu Das became the President of the Utkal Provincial Congress Committee.

The tide of the Non-Co-operation Movement swept over Orissa. In March 1921 when Gandhi toured Orissa, there was a unique response to his call from all sections of the people. Though the Mahatma visited a few places only, the message touched the hearts of the rural mass as well as the elite of Orissa. Many Youngman left schools and colleges, some of the eminent lawyers gave up their legal profession, men like Gopabandhu Choudhury, Lingaraj Misra, Surendra Nath Das and Muhammed Hanif resigned from government jobs, and Pandit Nilakantha Das gave up his teaching assignment of Calcutta University to serve in a national school. Visit of Rajagopalachari, Motital Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, among others, in 1922, gave a further impetus to the national movement in Orissa.

In the meantime, Sambalpur region, under the inspiring leadership of Laxminarayan Misra, Mahabir Singh, Bhagirathi Patnaik, Ghanashyam Panigrahi, Achyutananda Purohit and others spearheaded the Non-Co-operation Movem

in western Orissa with surprising success. The movement went to the grassroot when under Kastaram Ganda the depressed classes came forward to court arrest and suffer imprisonment.

A special feature of the Orissa Non-Co-operation was that at some places like Kanika, the movement took the form of agrarian uprising of the most down-trodden peasantry. From the beginning the freedom struggle in Orissa rested on a popular base, an economic background and it was not a mere middle class movement. The Kanika peasant movement received support and sympathy from the progressive elements in the Congress. During the Non-Co-operation Movement several Congress leaders including Pandit Gopabandhu Das were thrown into prison.

In the meantime, Utkal Gourab Madhusudan Das working on lines of liberal statesmanship, entered the Bihar and Orissa Legislative Council and became a Minister in January 1921. Atn idealist in politics, and a reformer by temperament he quickly showed his inviduality, not as a subservient Minister to the ruling power, but as a real servant of the people, with dedication to the cause of their uplift. As a Minister of Local Self-Government, he suggested to the Government that “To ensure the success of the reforms it is necessary that the Minister of Local Self-Government should not draw any salary, but should be an honorary worker’. The Governor would not entertain such ideas in view of the administrative prestige of the Ministers and consequently, Mr. Das tendered his regisnation in March 1923. The resignation of a Minister on grounds of principles became a rare example in British-Indian constitutional history and the action of Madhusudan Das drew admiration from Mahatma Gandhi and many others.

When Gandhi gave his call for the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930, Orissa came forward for a most vigorous struggle as one of the most politically progressive regions of India. The breaking of Salt Law which became the symbolic feature of the disobedience, proved to Oriya leaders as the most effective weapon to fight the British. All over the long coastal belt of Orissa, and with a special attraction for the people’s age-old engagement in salt manufacture which the British had destroyed, there was an unprecedented popular enthusiasm to break the Salt Law and prepare salt in their own hand. At Inchudi in Baleshwar district, Salt Satyagraha under Surendra Natha Das became only second to Gandhi’s Satyagraha in Gujarat in importance and impact. At other places, such as Kujang in Cuttack district, Kuhudi, Singeshwar and Latra in Puri district; and Huma in Ganjam district (at that time in Madras Presidency) the Salt Satyagraha in thousands broke the law and suffered the consequences. Smt. Rama Devi, Smt. Malati Choudhury, Acharya Harihar Das, Gopabandhu Choudhury, Atal Bihari Acharya, Govind Misra, Raj Krushna Bose, Smt. Sarala Devi, Smt. Annapurna Devi, Narayan Birabar Samanta, Birakishore Das, Lakshmi Narayan Misra, Smt. Binapani Devi, and Surendra Nath Patnaik, among many others, became the leading spirits of the Civil Disoebedience Movement and many of them suffered imprisonment with their followers from among the common people.

While the freedom struggle took its full course in the British administered Orissa, under the leadership of National Congress, spontaneous popular movements became a distinctive feature of the Garhjat areas where the people rose both against feudal tyranny of the princely rulers and their overlord, the British. The leaders of such uprisings came from the ranks of the down trodden and the oppressed, but they showed their revolutionary determination in the most practical manner. The people’s movements in the Orissa Garhjats were without a parallel in the rest of the princely India, though sufficient light has not yet been thrown on the subject.

The anti-feudal and the anti-British uprisings became frequent in the second and the third decade of the 20 th century for economic and political reasons. There were five such risings in Bamra, (Bamanda) three in Talcher, one in Mayurbhanj, one in Dhenkanal, and one in Nilagiri, besides a dangerous rising of the Kondha in Dashapalla during the period above mentioned. It is with much brutality, that the respective authorities could manage to restore order in their areas.

In course of time, popular democratic movement of the type as had developed in British Orissa took shape in the Garhjat areas. In 1931 the Orissa state’s People’s Conference was organized at Cuttack and by 1936-37 this organization proceeded to enquire into the people’s grievances in the states. The ruling chiefs vehemently opposed such moves and in some of the states, they restored to repressive measures in order to strike terror in the minds of the people, so that they should not speak anything against the establishment. These anti-people measures in turn paved path for organized popular movements, such as the non-violent Satyagraha of the Nilagiri Prajamandal to secure civil liberty for the people, resulting in large scale arrests of the Satyagrahis, lathi charges and firings. In Dhenkanal, in September 1938, the movement took such serious turn that a gathering of forty thousand people, agitating with demands, had to be dispersed with severe police action. It was a people’s uprising all over the state, but suppressed by repressive actions leading to several deaths including the death of a brave young boy named Baji Rout whose courage and sacrifice became almost a legend in Orissa. The relentless action of the armed forces forced thousands of people to escape from their homes while countless houses were destroyed. The movement was continued with a great determination to escape the tyranny of an arbitrary regime, backed by an imperial power. The help of the revolutionaries of Dhenkanal that came to satyagrahis from outside and it became obvious that such popular movements were destined for ultimate success. The most heroic role in the Dhenkanal uprising was played by Sri Baishnav Charan Patnaik, a born revolutionary coming from the most common ranks of the oppressed subjects who was subjected to untoled sufferings but fearlessly and carelessly he carried on his radical revolution showing rare courage against formidable forces. He carried the revolution to its logical end and made the Dhenkanal struggle an interesting episode in people’s mind.

The movement spread to Talcher where the feudal systems like bethi or forced labour roused the suffering peasantry into action. The authorities resorted to harsh methods of torture, beating, imprisonment and looting of people’s property, while the people were resorting to peaceful Satyagraha of the Gandhian type. Shri Pabitra Mohan Pradhan, a firm believer in Gandhian principles of non-violence was in the forefront of this movement. Nearly thirty thousand people fled from the ex-state to save their life and honour. In other ex-states like Athagarh, Tigiria, Baramba (Badamba), Narasinghapur and Nayagarh, the Prajamandals launched civil resistance movements and offered Satyagraha to press for the liberation of the people from antiquated feudal systems. A remarkable feature of all these Prajamandal movements was that side by side with their political aspects, the people were moved to action for economic and agrarian reasons. It was the peasantry everywhere which spearheaded the movements.

The movement in the small ex-state of Ranpur was met with so much of brutality from the authorities that an otherwise peace loving people were forced into violent agitation which culminated in the murder of the British Political Agent, Major Bazelgette in January 1939. It was followed by extreme police and military action and a virtual reign of terror forcing thousands of people to escape for life.

The serious nature of the Orissa State People’s agitation drew the attention of the Indian leaders, and eminent persons like Rajendra Prasad, C.F. Andrews, Agatha Harrison, N.G. Ranga and Hare Krushna Mehtab set themselves to bring about a conciliation between the ruling chiefs and their agitating people. Mahatma Gandhi took up the matter himself. He advised the people to suspend the Satyagraha and advised the authorities to find out ways and means for a constitutional settlement.

In the meantime, since the formation of the separate province of Orissa in 1936, the political events in India were heading towards the final phase of the freedom struggle. General elections were held in the British Indian Provinces in 1937 to form Provincial Legislatures in accordance with the provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935. In Orissa, in the said election, the Congress won 36 seats out of 60, and in July 1937, the first Congress Minstry was formed under the leadership of Biswanath Das with two other ministers, Nityananda Kanungo and Bodhram Dube.

This ministry began its work for the implementation of several pronounced policies of the Indian National Congress. Constructive programmes were taken up for the welfare of the common people in spite of obstacles created by the British controlled bureaucracy and for lack of adequate financial resources. Yet, the ministry worked out plans for the uplift of the Harijans, for introduction of basic education, for enforcement of prohibition, etc. But the ministry proved short-lived because of external events. The outbreak of the Second World War created in India a political crisis of great magnitude. At the call of the Congress High Command, all the Congress ministers tendered resignation in November, 1939.

The political crisis deepened rapidly. The Congress renewed its demand in July 1940 for complete independence and launched individual Satyagraha campaign soon thereafter. In Orissa, the campaign was carried on with considerable enthusiasm. The Congress ex-Ministers, legislators and several top-ranking leaders were arrested. Numerous other Congressmen spread over the land to carry the hope of independence far and wide. As the war progressed, national struggle in India also developed to its logical height.

In the power vacuum after the resignation of the Congress ministry, situations in Orissa developed rather in a delicate manner with the Congress preparing for a final onslaught against the British, while some of the leaders trying to form a Government to serve and advance the interest of Orissa. Out of the later mjove, a Coalition ministry was formed in November, 1941 with the Maharaja Paralakhemundi as Premier and Pandit Godavaris Mishra and Maulvi Abdus Sobhan Khan as ministers. This ministry functioned for a little over two and a half years. Its most noteworthy achievement was the establishment of a university in Orissa, famous as the Utkal University.

When the Quit India Movement began in August 1942, as the final attempt of the National Congress to end the British Raj, Orissa played its full part in the revolution, with widespread popular risings in remote rural areas. At many such places, the British administration almost vanished for sometime. With almost all Congressmen in prison, it was more or less like a leaderless revolution by the people, carried on fearlessly as long as possible. And, in this regard, Orissa earned the historic fame for the massacre of Eram in the district of Baleshwar where the largest number of people died in a single police action as compared to any such action in whole of India. Eram also proved how the revolution in Orissa was an affair of the poor and common people in far-away villages who required no leadership to rise, but possessed a spontaneous will to take part in revolution.

In the district of Koraput, too, the Quit India revolution went deep to stir the common men at the grass-root. Tribal inhabitants under Lakshman Nayak fought in a brave way in defiance of the power of the people. At a place named Maathili several people fell victim to the police firing and Nayak was injured, arrested and subsequently hanged to death.

Another significant aspect of the Quit India Movement in Orissa was the underground revolutionary activities carried on by a group of determined patriots under Surendra Nath Dwivedy which came to be known as the Orissa Conspiracy. The organization was ultimately broken up and the leaders were tried in a special court and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment.

Events moved faster after the Quit India revolution. With the end of the World War in 1945, the days of the British Indian Empire became numbered. The Labour Government in Britain which replaced Winston Churchill’s Government realized the hard realities of the Indian situation and came to the conclusion that it was impossible to retain India any longer. General elections were held to Indian Legslatures in 1946 and in Orissa, the Congress Party won 47 seats out of 60 and formed its ministry under the leadership of Harekrushna Mahtab. The other ministers of the Mahtab Cabinet were Nabakrushna Choudhury, Pandit Lingaraj Misra, Nityananda Kanungo and Radhakrushna Biswasroy. The independence of India was already in sight. Time called for ardous constructive works from the new Government. Side by side the amalgamation of the Orissa states became the most crucial issue of the hour.

With the coming of the independence in August 1947 the issue of the merger of the states was taken up immediately for which the grounds had long been prepared by the Praja Mandal Movements. In spite of the determination of the ruling chiefs not to give up their hereditary rights and their attempts to counteract the people’s demands, their time was running out with the emergence of a new independent India. People everywhere became restless and the omen of a mass upsurge loomed large on the horizon.

The leaders of Orissa and of India could not have allowed the princely chiefs to continue to rule as before. H. Mahtab, therefore, took the initiative for the merger of the states without any further delay. The unrest in the ex-state of Nilagiri forced him for intervention and the ex-state was merged with Orissa in November 1947. This alarmed the other rules while it encouraged the people to stand up boldly for their political emancipation. The developing crisis made the central intervention imperative, and Sardar Vallabhabhai Patel came to Orissa in December 1947. His statesmanship and strength bore result when all the princely states, except Mayurbhanj, signed the agreement handing over the administration of their states to the Government of India in perpetuity, who on their part delegated the administrative power to the Government of Orissa to work out the merger to the states. The princely states, thus, except Mayurbhanj, were amalgamated with Orissa with effect from 1 st January, 1948. Mayurbhanj, too, was merged with Orissa a year later. It was, however, unfortunate that under some extraordinary circumstances and political miscalculations the two Oriya-speaking ex-states of Seraikela and Kharsawan were placed under Bihar in spite of strong resentment from the entire Oriya-speaking population.

With the merger of the states, the new Orissa became nearly twice as big in size, and with the addition of 50 per cent more people to its existing population, it became one of the major territorial units of the Indian Union. With potential economic resources in form of unlimited minerals, extensive forests, fertile lands, many river valleys, and numerous waterways, Orissa’s future appears brigher in the days to come.