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¤ TACFARINAS (d. 24 A.D.) A rebel chief in AFRICA from 17 to 24 A.D. A Numidian by birth, Tacfarinas became an auxiliary in the Roman army. In 17, he deserted, gathered together a group of followers, ravaged the provinces and became the leader of the local Musulamii. Four Roman generals campaigned against the rebel. Camillus defeated the Musulamii and their Moorish allies in 17, winning triumphal honors, while the new proconsul of Africa, APRONIUS, helped to thwart a Tacfarinas attack in 20 A.D. Blaesus used guerrilla tactics against him in 22, and in 24 P. Cornelius DOLABELLA arrived to finish the war. Marching through the country with four flying columns, Tacfarinas was trapped by the Romans and killed in battle.

¤ TACITUS (1), PUBLIUS CORNELIUS (c. 55-120? A.D.) Considered the last of the great Roman classical historians, and a major source of information concerning the 1st century A.D. and its sociopolitical climate. Little has survived of his own life except for the barest details of a public career. He was probably of Gallic descent, attaining senatorial rank during the reign of VESPASIAN. Further advancement came after 77, when he married the daughter of AGRICOLA. He was made a QUAESTOR in 81 and a PRAETOR in 88, and received an appointment to the quindecemviri. With a consulship in 97, Tacitus had survived the harsh time of DOMITIAN, a period that saw the death of his father-in-law and a regime whose cultivated despotism left a major mark on his writings. Viewed as one of the foremost orators of the age, Tacitus delivered the funeral oration for VERGINIUS RUFUS in 97. Three years later he prosecuted Marius Priscus for extortion, receiving help from PLINY the Younger. In 112-113, Tacitus became proconsul of Asia, dying a few years later.

By 100, Tacitus had already turned to writing. Clearly an admirer of the Republic, Tacitus was willing (or driven) to describe the despotic rule of the emperors. His policy of reporting only verifiable accounts rather than rumor or gossip, made his narratives all the move vivid. His style was fluid and direct, his text a mixture of poetical color and classical methodology. Ultimately, the writer's own independence and vision transcend the often bitter, melancholy and outrageous tales. His extant works are:

Annals -> The longest, and perhaps finest, of Tacitus's writings. His last project, he was possibly working on it at his death. It covers the entire Julian Dynasty from after the death of AUGUSTUS in 14 A.D. to perhaps the death of NERO in 68. All or part of 11 books (of 16) are extant; there may have been more. Called also ab excessus divi Augusti (After the death of the deified Augustus), the Annals was written chronologically, highlighting the events of each year, often with a list of the consuls, and including events both in Rome and in the provinces. Tacitus wrote that he hoped to finish with accounts of the reigns of Augustus, NERVA and TRAJAN, the former for the Annals and the latter for the Histories, but he never attained his goal.

Dialogue on the Orators (Dialogus de Oratoribus) -> This treatise was once considered his first book, though new daring places it perhaps around 100 and not in the late 70s, as was theorized. There has always been debate about Tacitus' authorship, a view now held in scholarly disrepute because of the inability to find a contemporary capable of writing it. In the Dialogue, Tacitus pleads the decay of oratory, using Ciceronian RHETORIC, argument and observation.

Germania (De origine et situ Germanorum, On the Origins and Country of the Germans) -> Germania was a monograph on the peoples inhabiting the barbarian lands behind the Rhine. While Tacitus was aware of the great threat posed to the Empire by the Germans, his book displayed remarkable interest, detail and even sympathy toward the tribes and their cultures. While much of his information was inaccurate, Tacitus compared the Germans to the Romans; although the Romans naturally fared well, the historian admitted to the vitality of the barbarians and to the deteriorated ways of his own people.

Historia -> With the Annals, Tacitus's most important work. Composed sometime around 106-107, the Histories covered the events of the Roman Empire from 69 to 96, under the rule of GALBA, OTHO, VITELLIUS, VESPASIAN, TITUS and Domitian. Unfortunately, the latter sections did not survive; all that remains of perhaps 14 books are books one to four and part of book five, roughly the entire civil war and some of the events that followed. It is fascinating because of the emphasis placed on the major and minor players alike, each with their own, often three-dimensional character.

On the Life of Julius Agricola (De Vita lulii Agricolae) - This biography was published probably in 98. Centering on his father-in-law's campaigns in Britain (BRITANNIA), it is the primary source for the events of Agricola's life and career. Agricola was more of a laudatio than a mere biography. There was, as well, a reminder of the tyranny of Domitian, contrasted with the loyalty of Agricola.

¤ TACITUS (2), MARCUS CLAUDIUS (d. 276 A.D.) Tacitus is one of the least known emperors because of the large amount of wholly unreliable information about him. His brief reign (from November 275 to around June 276) was detailed in the writings of the SCRIPTORES HISTORIAE AUGUSTAE, EUTROPIUS (1) and others, who describe him as an old senator, chosen by the SENATE to succeed AURELIAN and to recreate the constitutional government of former days, but such accounts were probably inaccurate. Tacitus was most likely a senator elected by the army in 275 to follow Aurelian. The Senate naturally agreed, while Tacitus humbly accepted power. The new emperor asked that Aurelian be deified and then declared his half-brother Florian his Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD. The pair then set out against the GOTHS, who threatened to ravage ASIA MINOR once more. Tacitus won a major victory, taking the title Gothicus Maximus, but he died soon after, in June 276, either at the hands of the army or of natural causes.

¤ TAMESIS (Thames) The most important river in Britain, giving direct access to the sea to the provincial city and port of LONDINIUM (London). The river had potential in terms of economic growth that was not overlooked by the traders there, even before the Roman conquest. After the rise of Londinium, the river became even more valuable.

¤ TAPAE Dacian site of two battles fought between the Romans and the Dacians, in 88 and 101 A.D. The first battle was part of Emperor DOMITIAN'S campaign against the Dadan King DECEBALUS, with the Roman legions under the command of Tettius Julianus. Taking place near the Iron Gates, a deep gorge cut by the DANUBE River about 100 miles east of modern Belgrade, the conflict was an absolute success for Rome. Not only were the Dacians soundly defeated, but also Decebalus's lieutenant Vezinas, died on the field. While the first battle ended the war, it did not prevent later struggles. Another war broke out between Decebalus and Emperor TRAJAN, at the head of his own LEGIONS. During his advance on Dacia, Trajan fought at the same site. Decebalus was unvanquished. The conflict continued.

¤ TARENTUM, TREATY OF Agreement signed in the spring of 37 B.C. between Octavian (AUGUSTUS) and Marc ANTONY. The year 38 had proven an unhappy one for Octavian and Antony, for the pirate Sextus POMPEY had shown himself to be a fearsome opponent to Caesar's heir, and Antony was in desperate need of troops. Octavian had missed a meeting at BRUNDISIUM, blaming Antony for not waiting. By the spring of 37, a new place and date was set at Tarentum, and Antony arrived with 300 ships for use by Octavian against Pompey, expecting in return help for his war against PARTHIA. The meeting was fraught with mistrust and tension. A disaster might have occurred had not OCTAVIA intervened, bringing the two stubborn men to the table. In the end, the triumvirate was reaffirmed; the two men promised mutual support and stripped Sextus Pompey of all rights and privileges given at MISENUM. The two departed, but suspicions remained between them.

¤ TARSUS Also spelled Tarsos; the capital of the province of Cilicia. Situated in Cilicia Campestris, on the river Cydnus, it was probably founded by the Syrians and later used as a focal colony for the Greeks. The city suffered from attacks in the 1st century B.C. by Tigranes of Armenia and the famed Cilician pirates. When POMPEY THE GREAT defeated the pirates in 67 B.C., he created the Cilician province, declaring Tarsus its capital. Tarsus was highly favored in the imperial administration of AUGUSTUS, due in part to the emperor's tutor, ATHENADORUS who came from that city, which hosted the imperial legate and provincial assembly. The first metropolis in Cilicia, Tarsus enjoyed considerable autonomy, including freedom from taxes. Her prized status was eventually challenged by the citizens of Anazarbus to the northeast. Two events made Tarsus memorable. In 41 B.C., Marc ANTONY greeted CLEOPATRA there after she had sailed up the Cydnus in her famous gold barge. And in the 1st century A.D., Tarsus produced its most famous son, the Christian Saint Paul of Tarsus.

¤ TATIAN (2nd century A.D.) Christian writer and theologian, of Assyrian descent. Tatian was educated in Greek RHETORIC and philosophy. Between 150 and 165, he converted to CHRISTIANITY, becoming a pupil of JUSTIN MARTYR. Tatian displayed tendencies toward GNOSTICISM, finding full expression for his heretical views during a trip to the East (c. 172), when he founded the sect of the Encratites, a Gnostic group of ascetics. He wrote two important works, the Oratio ad Graecos (Address to the Greeks), a vicious condemnation of Hellenic civilization, and the Diatessaron, a history of the life of Christ that remained a doctrinal source for the Syrian Church until the 5th century.

¤ TATIANUS, FLAVIUS EUTOLMIUS (fl. late 4th century A.D.) Praetorian prefect of the Orient from 388 to 392. From LYCIA, Tatianus served as an ADVOCATUS to various government officials and was appointed praefectus augustalis of Egypt in 367. In 370, he became head of Syria and the Orient (until 374), earning, according to LIBANIUS, the reputation of flogging criminals to death. In 381, Emperor THEODOSIUS i summoned him back to court, and in 388 made him Praetorian prefect. He acted as the main agent of government while Theodosius was in the West. He was made a consul in 391, while his son Proculus became prefect of the city of CONSTANTINOPLE. Through the intrigues of RUFINUS, the MAGISTER OFFICIORUM, Tatianus' political position was slowly destroyed. He was forced to watch the execution of his son and was himself condemned. Reprieved, Tatianus was exiled to Lycia, where he remained until Rufinus suffered his own demise. Tatianus was rehabilitated but reportedly died a blind beggar. A pagan, Tatianus used legislation to further his own anticlerical views, refusing to allow criminals to find sanctuary among the clergy or for monks to enter towns.

¤ TAURUS, TITUS STATILIUS (fl. late 1st century B.C.) Highly respected general and consul during the later Republic, who became one of the leading supporters of Octavian (AUGUSTUS) against Marc ANTONY. Considered by the writer Velleius Paterculus to be second only to Marcus AGRIPPA in military importance, Taurus was used in a large number of operations by Octavian. In 36 B.C. he won over virtually all of Africa and, in 34 took over the campaign against the Dalmatians when Octavian departed for Rome to assume a consulship. When the Civil War erupted against Antony, Taurus made a successful charge against enemy cavalry near Actium that convinced Philadelphus, king of Paphlagonia, to desert Antony's cause. In 29 he was in Spain, suppressing local tribes, including the Cantabri and Astures. Consul in 26, he was given command of the city of Rome by Augustus, when the emperor set out on his tour of the provinces. Taurus also erected a stone amphitheater in the Campus Martius, the first of its kind in Rome. His heirs included four later consuls and NERO'S third wife, Statilia MESSALLINA.

¤ TAXATION Important element in the collection of revenue in the Roman Empire. For centuries, the imperial tax system was a demonstration of the favored status of Rome and Italy, and mirrored Rome's policy toward its provinces and subject peoples. The government of the Republic followed the Greek model in its program of taxation, in that it had no direct taxes, with the exception of emergencies or extraordinary situations. There were, however, forms of indirect revenue enhancement. The most important of these were the 5% charge on the manumission of slaves (vicesima manumissionis) and the harbor tax. Allies or clients of Rome did not pay any taxes either, but fulfilled their oaths with troops and with ships.

All of this changed as the Republic acquired provinces. Each territory had to yield a fixed sum in direct and indirect taxes, but there was no set method for collection. Whatever local system was in place at the time could be retained so long as it fulfilled the purpose and was reasonably efficient. A more uniform formula for taxation was put in place by the imperial regime of AUGUSTUS. The key to taxation was the census used in every province to determine populations. From those figures came new quotas. Rome and Italy were, of course, spared every kind of direct tax but continued to pay indirectly. Thus the census was increasingly important to the entire imperial financial system.

All Roman citizens were immune to direct taxation until the year 217 A.D., when CARACALLA issued the monumental Constitutio Antoniniana, by which all residents of the Empire were given full citizenship. All were now subject to payment, except for Italy, which retained its historic privilege until at least the time of DIOCLETIAN in the late 3rd century. That emperor ended Italian supremacy and instituted direct taxation, the same found in every other province.

The direct tax, collected from the provinces, was called TRIBUTUM. During the Republican era the tributum consisted of a fixed amount (STIPENDIUM) or a tithe (decumae). With the dawning of the Empire and the application of the census, more accurate means of judging population were available. Based upon the census figures, a number of taxable regions per province (areas eligible for taxation) was found (the iuga or capita), a group of taxable units that would vary from census to census. From the capita was calculated how much was owed in the main direct tax, the tributum solis or land tax. Anyone who owned land paid, but provinces also had to make payments in other items or services. These included arms, food and or other supplies for the legions that defended them or the bureaucrats who administered the cities. For those who did not own land there was a different tax, the tributum capitis, or poll tax. All members of this group who were over the age of 20 or 25, male or female, were liable, but females paid only half. Two forms of the tributum capitis existed, one for the country and another for the city. Taxes in the city were based on whatever property was owned and on wages from a field of work.

Collection was in the hands of the provincial government, trickling down to the local community and the exactores, the loathed tax collectors. The treatment given to Matthew in the New Testament accounts was very typical, while in some regions any protest against the Empire was often started with the wholesale slaughter the tax collectors, the most prominent image of imperial tyrrany. In the later years of the Empire all means were used to ensure the acquistion of revenues, the main burden falling on DECURIONES, or local magistrates. Any arrears in taxes had to be paid by them, an arduous and expensive obligation that could lead to imprisonment, torture and even death if not fulfilled.

The indirect system of taxation was considerably adjusted by the fiscal policy of Augustus. Citizens had to pay the harbor tax but new taxes were added as well. A 4% tax on the price of slaves formed the quinta et vicesima manicipiorum, while the tax on manumission continued. The centesima rerum venalium levied a 1% charge on all goods sold at auction, and the vicesima hereditatum et legatorum imposed a 5% tax on inheritance of estates over 100,000 sesterces by persons other than the next of kin, or on all willed legacies.

¤ TEMPLE OF APOLLO Large temple erected by AUGUSTUS (Octavian) on the Palatine Hill in Rome in 28 B.C., in honor of his Greek divine patron, APOLLO. Octavian had pledged to construct a suitable place of worship to the god as part of his vows to avenge the death of Julius CAESAR. Seemingly, Apollo blessed Octavian in this endeavor, for there was a small temple to the god at ACTIUM, overlooking the battle that sealed Octavian's final victory, in 31 B.C. As a clear indication of his devotion to Apollo, Augustus had the temple placed next to his own humble residence on the Palatine. Dedicated in 28 B.C., the sanctuary housed both an image of the god and two libraries, one in Greek and the other in Latin.

¤ TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX A shrine dedicated to the gods Castor and Pollux (the DIOSCURI), situated prominently in the FORUM ROMANUM to honor the deities who, according to legend, came to the aid of the Romans in 496 B.C. at the battle of Lake Regillus against the Latins. For their help, Aulus Postumus Albinus, the commanding general, promised to build them a place of worship in the city. The site was well chosen, and the temple was completed in 484. In design the sanctuary was of average size, typically rectangular. It required renovation in 117 B.C., by Lucius Dalmaticus, by which time it had probably accumulated around it many tabernae veteres, or shops and vendors. The presence of these stalls no doubt contributed to the destruction of the temple in 14 B.C., when a fire struck the Forum. TIBERIUS, in Augustus' name, dedicated the rebuilt temple, the last structure finished in the Augustan principate, in 6 A.D. GAIUS CALIGULA, in 40, turned the temple into a vestibule, cutting the temple in two between the statues so that they might act as gatekeepers to his own divine person. CLAUDIUS returned them to their rightful place in 41. As typical of the decline in Rome, the temple was destroyed in the 4th century A.D. and never rebuilt. Of interest was the 1985 discovery by archaeologists of 86 teeth near the ancient entrance to the temple; the teeth belonged to the patients of a dentist who operated out of a nearby taberna. Popular usage changed the name of the temple to Aedes Gastons, or Temple of Castor.

¤ TEMPLE OF CONCORD One of the numerous temples within Rome's FORUM ROMANUM; dedicated to the goddess Concordia, a minor deity of unity. The first temple was founded by Marcus Furius Camillus in 367 B.C.; the site chosen was the comitium, or meetingplace of the Patricians. A new Temple of Concord was ordered to be built sometime after the death of Gaius Gracchus, by the unpopular consul Opimius (c. 121 B.C.), and yet another one was created by TIBERIUS in honor of himself and his brother DRUSUS in 10 A.D. In the Forum Romanum, the temple occupied the position just behind the later Arch of Severus, next to the Temple of Vespasian and the Dungeons of TULLIANUM. African marble was used in the construction of the lost temple, and the interior was apparently well decorated. The SENATE met there often, including the day in 31 A.D. when it condemned the Praetorian Prefect SEJANUS to death.

¤ TEMPLE OF DIVUS AUGUSTUS The sanctuary constructed by Emperor TIBERIUS and his mother LIVIA in 14 A.D. as part of the ceremonies surrounding the deification of AUGUSTUS following his death. Where the temple was positioned has not been verified, but literary evidence places it between the Palatine and Capitoline hills. Quite possibly it was placed near the BASILICA JULIA, in the Velabrum. Augustus' temple was an example not only of the aggrandizement of the cult of the emperor, the IMPERIAL CULT, but also of the psychology of Tiberius and GAIUS CALIGULA. Tiberius ensured that the building was completed and then dedicated other edifices in his name. Gaius Caligula seemingly began his reign with a dedication to Augustus at the temple but then desecrated the sanctity of it with a bridge over the temple and connecting his palace to the Capitoline and the TEMPLE OF JUPITER. CLAUDIUS deified Livia in 41, and put a statue to her in the shrine.

¤ TEMPLE OF DIVUS CLAUDIUS Temple constructed to the deified Emperor CLAUDIUS upon the Caelian Hill. Emperor NERO probably began construction of the sanctuary, setting it along the route of the Aqua Claudia, the aqueduct feeding that part of the city. The emperor apparently wished the outside of the temple to be decorated with fountains but focused so ardently upon this aspect of the construction that the temple itself was left incomplete. VESPASIAN, who came to power in 69 A.D., took upon himself the task of finishing the building. Despite its impressive arching, the shrine was never a major place of worship.

¤ TEMPLE OF DIVUS JULIUS Small shrine devoted to the memory of Julius CAESAR that occupied one of the main axis points of the FORUM ROMANUM. It was positioned directly across the Forum from the TEMPLE OF CONCORD and was surrounded by some of the most beautiful edifices in Rome, the BASILICA AEMILIA, TEMPLE OF VESTA, TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX and the BASILICA JULIA. Caesar's temple was promised to him by Octavian (AUGUSTUS) as his avenger in 42 B.C. The site chosen was the very spot where Caesar was cremated after his assassination. Although work probably began and continued throughout the 30s, the temple was not dedicated until 29 B.C., by Octavian. It was part of his deliberate program to honor his family, while making Rome more grand.

¤ TEMPLE OF ISIS The sanctuary of the Egyptian goddess found in the CAMPUS MARTIUS. Worship of Isis was brought to Rome from the Nile, finding acceptance among the inhabitants but kept out of the POMERIUM (the sacred boundary) by the SENATE to preserve the inviolability of Roman social tradition. In 52 and 48 B.C., the Senate ordered her place of worship in Rome destroyed. Each time her devotees returned, and a new temple was decreed in 42 B.C. Official support for Isis came during the reign of GAIUS CALIGULA (37-41 A.D.), when this temple was ordered built to her in the Campus Marrius. Although still outside the pomerium, Gaius ensured that Isis was surrounded by other beautiful structures, including the PANTHEON and the BATHS of Agrippa. In 80, a fire destroyed much of the area, but DOMITIAN saw to the repair of the temple, and a final renovation was made during the time Of SEVERUS ALEXANDER (222-235).

¤ TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM, GREAT The center of worship in JERUSALEM that served for centuries as the heart of JUDAISM. Its destruction in 70 A.D. had a profound effect upon the Jewish religion and upon Jewish history. Biblical scholars consider that there were three such temples in Jerusalem: the first was Solomon's temple, built in the 10th century B.C.; a second was named after Zerubabel, the local Persian governor at the time of reconstruction (c. 520 B.C.); and the third and most famous was Herod's temple (c. 19 B.C.), an improvement completed to Herod's grand design. The last two temples figure prominently in Roman relations with the Jews.

In 63 B.C., POMPEY THE GREAT captured Jerusalem and desecrated the temple by entering the Holy of Holies, though he did not touch anything there. His fellow triumvir CRASSUS (1), however, plundered the temple treasury of 2,000 silver talents. HEROD THE GREAT became the king of JUDAEA in 37 B.C. and 18 years later began work on redesigning the entire structure. To convince the Jews of his plans, he had to finish all preparations for the new temple before touching a stone of the old edifice. In the end, the temple complex was very pleasing. Gold covered the temple, with a sanctuary along Solomonic dimensions, and the structure was placed on a large platform; the entire area was decorated with gates and columns. Further building made the temple a key part of Jerusalem.

During the Jewish Revolt, it was clear to the Romans not only that Jerusalem was the focus of the entire war, but also that the Great Temple had to be captured. Thus, when General TITUS laid siege to the city in 70, the entire operation was aimed at reaching the holy site. There has been debate as to whether or not Titus wanted the temple destroyed; JOSEPHUS the historian argued against this, but other sources pointed to Titus' acquiescence. In any event, the entire building was burned, except for two gates, its defenders dying rather than surrendering. The vessels of the temple that could be rescued were gathered up and carried by Titus' aides in his triumph in Rome.

¤ TEMPLE OF JUPITER CAPITOLINUS The great structure devoted to Jupiter Optimus Maximus (Jupiter Greatest and Brightest) on Rome's Capitoline Hill. If the broad state RELIGION of Rome had an emotional or divine center, it was here, beneath the gilded roof of this vast shrine, where JUPITER, aided by MINERVA and JUNO, looked down upon the Eternal City.

The Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was very old, dating to 509 B.C., when it was dedicated. It was built under the influence of the Etruscans; altars were erected not just to Jupiter but also to Juno and Minerva, the three major deities of the Roman religion: Jupiter as supreme god, Minerva as patroness of the arts and reason, and Juno in her incarnation as Moneta, goddess of finance. Here the consuls came upon entering office to sacrifice white bulls, and it was to Jupiter that a victorious general rode in a chariot as part of his triumph.

Because of its position on the Capitol, the temple figured in numerous historical events. It was burned in 83 B.C. and rebuilt. Emperor GAIUS CALIGULA connected it to his palace on the Palatine by building a bridge over the TEMPLE OF DIVUS AUGUSTUS. In 69 A.D., the brother of VESPASIAN, Flavius SABINUS, took refuge on the Capitoline from the aggression of Emperor VITELLIUS. He sealed up the entrance to the temple and was besieged. As a result of bitter fighting, virtually the entire structure was reduced to rubble. The Flavians then repaired the damage, only to have it burned again in 80. Completely restored, the temple served for centuries as one of the leading symbols of PAGANISM in Rome.

¤ TEMPLE OF MARS ULTOR Shrine constructed by Emperor AUGUSTUS in honor of Mars Ultor, or Mars the Avenger, and placed in the most prominent position in the FORUM AUGUSTUM. In 42 B.C., before the battle of PHILIPPI, Octavian made a pledge to build a temple to Mars if he should prove victorious. As both BRUTUS and CASSIUS were killed in the battle, Octavian felt certain that Mars had been on his side. As Mars was also the supposed founder of the Julian gens (or clan), Augustus chose to situate the temple in his own Forum. The Forum was dedicated in 2 B.C., and the temple itself contained statues of Mars, Venus and the deified Julius CAESAR-also the legionary standards lost at CARRHAE in 55 B.C. but restored to Rome in 20 B.C. As the Avenger, Mars Ultor received gifts from those who had achieved vengeance upon their enemies, such as GAIUS CALIGULA, who murdered Lepidus in 39 A.D. and, as though he had prevented his own assassination, sent three daggers in gratitude to the shrine.

¤ TEMPLE OF PEACE Also called the Forum of Peace and the Forum of Vespasian; the so-called Templum Pads was the creation of Emperor VESPASIAN, who began the work in 71 A.D., and dedicated the entire structure in 75. The Temple of Peace was one of numerous architectural projects started by Vespasian to celebrate both the triumph of Rome over the Jews and the return of tranquility to the Roman world. Desiring to find a prominent location for the sanctuary, Vespasian chose one of the last remaining sites available in the vast complex of the Roman forums, just to the north of the FORUM ROMANUM and to the east of the FORUM TRANSITORIUM. Within the temple were stored the many items removed from JERUSALEM and brought to Rome by TITUS. A fire destroyed the temple in 192, but Septimius SEVERUS repaired it, placing within it a marble model of Rome.

¤ TEMPLE OF SATURN One of the oldest temples in Rome, located in the FORUM ROMANUM and fulfilling both a religious and a political function. Dedicated in 498 or 497 B.C., the Temple of Saturn was near the TEMPLE OF CONCORD on the southwestern edge of the great Forum Romanum. Later, the BASILICA JULIA was constructed near it. Aside from the statue of SATURNUS, the government placed within the shrine the state treasury, or AERARIUM. Subsequently, the treasury was known as the Aerari Saturni.

TEMPLE OF VESTA - The home of the goddess of the Roman hearth. As VESTA was both an ancient deity and an important one in terms of the Roman state, her temple was situated in the FORUM ROMANUM, eventually located near the temples of Castor and Divus Julius, and the Arch of Augustus. King Numa (c. 700 B.C.) was the builder of the original temple of Vesta, choosing a round shape, probably imitating the original circular hut where she was worshipped. There was no statue of Vesta to be found, rather she was represented by an eternal flame. Anyone could enter during the day, but admission was restricted to the interior, where relics of Vesta were safeguarded, and at night all men were refused entry.

¤ TEMPLES OF MINERVA Three notable sites of worship, particularly the shrine at the TEMPLE OF JUPITER CAPITOLINUS, that honored this goddess. As Moneta, or patroness of finance, Minerva had a chapel in the temple of Jupiter and two other temples, one in the FORUM TRANSITORIUM and one called Minerva Chalcidica, both constructed under the patronage of DOMITIAN, who revered the deity with fervor. Minerva's temple in the Forum Transitorium was the principle feature of the area. With columns supporting the entire forum, the temple itself was dominated by a statue of the goddess. Domitian died before he could complete his work, but NERVA finished the project, dedicating it in 97 A.D. The first temple of Minerva Chalcidica had been built in 29 B.C. by AUGUSTUS, but another temple of interest was erected in the Campus Martius by Domitian, near the PANTHEON and the BATHS of Agrippa.

¤ TENTH LEGION One of the most famous legions in the Roman army. Julius CAESAR'S Tenth Legion was involved in the GALLIC WARS and in the CIVIL WAR with POMPEY THE GREAT, as the "Old Guard" of Julius Caesar. The Legio X Fretensis, as it was known by its contemporaries, was the elite inspiration for Roman legions throughout the Republic. References to its battlefield achievements were considerable, as the cohorts assumed near-heroic proportions. Caesar first encountered the Tenth in Helvetia, when he arrived in Geneva to assume control of Gaul. He immediately marched the Tenth off to battle against migrating Helvetians. Henceforth, the soldiers of the legion were ever at his side. One of the earliest and most dramatic episodes of bravery came in 58 B.C. in the struggle with the German chieftain Ariovistus. Facing a shortage of cavalrymen, Caesar selected certain soldiers from the Tenth, and put them on mounts. The legion subsequently was known as the Legio X Equestris, or Legion of the Knights. At the battle of PHARSALUS in 48 B.C., against Pompey, the cohorts served as the anchor of Caesar's line. Positioned on the right flank, where Caesar knew the main Pompeian blow would fall, the Tenth successfully withstood a furious assault, holding the flank long enough for Caesar to make his devastating counterattack and win the day. The legion no doubt would have participated in the Parthian War, had Caesar not been assassinated. His successor Octavian (AUGUSTUS) used the legionaries throughout the civil war with Marc ANTONY, but after the battle of Actium in 31 B.C. he disbanded the nucleus of the legion. The replacements had no sense of the original esprit de corps and the unit became once more the Legio X Fretensis. It had a long career during the imperial epoch, including participation in the Jewish War (c. 66-70 A.D.).

¤ TERENTIA (fl. late 1st century B.C.) The wife of MAECENAS; reportedly a very beautiful woman, loved desperately by Emperor AUGUSTUS. She may have been one of the reasons for his leaving Rome in 16 B.C. to tour provinces and was possibly a cause for the deteriorating relationship between her husband and the emperor. That Augustus admired her was certain, despite the fact that her brother, Licinius MURENA, was executed in 22 B.C. for conspiracy against him.

¤ TERENTIUS, MARCUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) One of the very few intimate associates of the Praetorian Prefect SEJANUS to be spared by Emperor TIBERIUS, because of his honest (and ingenious) defense. When placed on trial for his friendship with the fallen PRAETORIAN PREFECT, Terentius, a knight, refused to deny his status as a client but exclaimed loudly that, on the contrary, he had pursued the favor of Sejanus. After all, he argued, Sejanus had been honored by Tiberius, and "if the emperor did no wrong in having such a friend neither did I; if one such as he was deceived by the Prefect, what surprise is there that I was deceived? It is our duty to regard highly all whom the emperor trusts, regardless of what kind of men they might be-all that matters is that they please the emperor." He was immediately acquitted.

¤ TERTULLIAN (Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullians) (c. 160-220? A.D.) The first Latin Father of the Christian Church; writer, apologist, controversialist and a truly brilliant leader in Western religion. Tertullian was born in CARTHAGE, the son of a Roman centurion. Raised as a pagan, he became a lawyer and pupil of STOICISM before moving to Rome, where the social decay of PAGANISM so repulsed him that he turned to the main alternative of the era, CHRISTIANITY. Converted around 195-196, he returned to Carthage and began writing in defense of his new faith. He was made a presbyter in the African Church but by 207 was disillusioned with the Christianity he saw around him. The Montanist movement seemed to offer the most rigorous life and the hardest view of Christian doctrine. Even the Montanists, however, could not hold his allegiance, and in his later years he created his own sect, the Tertullianists. His age at death is uncertain, but he did live to a considerable age.

The literary output of Tertullian has been dated to between 196/197 and 212. He began by defending Christianity and praising the lives of the martyrs. Early works were Ad Martyas, Ad Nationes and Apologeticus, the famed treatise refuting the popular charges against Christianity being spread at the time. By 198 Tertullian was observing deeper aspects of Christianity, with such doctrinal writings as De Praescriptione haereticorum, De Spectaculis, De Testimonia Animae, Ad Uxorem, De Baptismo and De Paenitentia. Around 207, he penned Against Marcion, a relentless assault in five books on Marcion, in which the nature of Christ as the Jewish Messiah was detailed.

Much as Tertullian had turned against routine Christianity, so did his works assume a more stringent theological view. His continued capacity to write with force and genius was seen in De Came Christi, De Fuga in Persecutione, De Corona Militis, Adversus Praxean and De Resurrectione Carnis. In Ad Scapulam was an open letter, dated 212, to the proconsul of Africa, Scapula, condemning repression against Christianity. Tertullian's last known composition was De Pudicitia (On Modesty), in which he questioned the action of Pope Callistus in allowing Christian penitence to be more lenient. In all, 31 books are extant by Tertullian, and he was the first Christian author to compose exclusively in Latin. With a clear, orthodox and legally detailing mind, he had the most profound effect upon the formation of Christian theology. The idea of the Trinity found development in his hands, and the Bible emerged as a major element of doctrine. See also MONTANUS AND MONTANISM.

¤ TESSERA Ticket or token. Tesserae were used as tickets of admission to game or circuses. Disk-shaped, the tesserae identified the seat number and section of a theater or amphitheater where the holder would be located (see COLOSSEUM). Bronze tokens, called tesserae frumentariae or tesserae nummariae, were part of the CONGIARIUM or gifts of food given out to the lower classes of Rome. Such coins were distributed to the crowds, either in an orderly fashion or by throwing large quantities right into the throng, thus giving the more cynical emperors amusement. Tesserae were normally minted for special occasions, such as anniversaries of imperial accession or for birthdays.

¤ TETRARCHY The system of shared imperial rule established in 293 A.D. by Emperor DIOCLETIAN. It remained the accepted, albeit increasingly chaotic, form of government until around 308-309, when it broke apart completely. The idea of joint rule of the Roman Empire was not original. MARCUS AURELIUS (ruled 161-180 A.D.) had asked the SENATE to elevate Lucius VERUS to the post of co-emperor, and other emperors had ensured a stable succession by appointing their sons as equals in imperial power. Diocletian, however, desired a process in which stability would be guaranteed beyond one or two reigns. He understood that the Empire was now too vast and complex to be administered by only one man. Help was needed, and the tetrarchy would provide it.

In essence, the tetrarchy was a Concordia between two senior emperors, each known as an Augustus and two Caesares, or lieutenant-emperors. They were to be masters of the Roman world, working in close cooperation and laboring for the good of all. Although they might be forced to reside or fight at opposite ends of the provinces, it was understood that they shared in the rank of Augustus and were heads of only one Empire, not of an Eastern or Western territory. They would not necessarily be the son of the reigning Augustus but would be the most qualified officials available. A connection to the imperial family could be arranged through marriage to cement the political union. Theoretically sound, the system worked temporarily.

Diocletian laid the groundwork for his great experiment by promoting his friend MAXIMIAN to the rank of Augustus (or co-emperor), this after Maximian had defeated the Bagaudae in Gaul, thus proving his worthiness for such a high office. By 286 there were two emperors (or Augusti); during the years of military campaigns that followed, struggles that would have exhausted one monarch were less taxing on two. In 293, having gained confidence in the arrangement, Diocletian named two Caesars (or sub-emperors), CONSTANTIUS i CHLORUS, and GALERIUIS. The provinces were then handed out for each tetrarch to patrol and administer.

Aided by Galerius, Diocletian took the East, specifically Bithynia, Arabia, Africa and Egypt, with Galerius in ILLYRICUM and Asia, as well as most of Asia Minor. Maximian, with Constantius as Caesar, possessed Rome, Italy, Sicily, Western Africa, and probably Hispania. Constantius was given the troubled regions of Britain and Gaul. Soon after the installations, frontier troubles and rebellions, most no- I tably in Egypt, Africa and Britain, put the tetrarchy to its first test. They all handled matters easily, justifying Dio- I cletian's act of placing the twin dynasties under the protection of Jove (Jupiter) for himself, and Hercules for 1 Maximian. From 293 to 305 the reign of the four emperors worked effectively. By 303, Diocletian was preparing to re- ! tire but found that Maximian did not share his desire to give up his exalted rank. Persuaded by Diocletian in 305, Maximian stepped down on May 1. Diocletian retired at Nicomedia in Bithynia, and Maximian did the same at Milan. Galerius immediately took up his duties in the East and Constantius in the West.

At this point matters went terribly wrong. CONSTANTINE, the son of Constantius, and MAXENTIUS, son of Maximian, felt that they were entitled to a place in the new scheme of things; but they were ignored, as the rank of Caesar went to SEVERUS n and MAXIMINUS DAIA. Both Caesars were political clients of Galerius, who was now preeminent. The following year, Constantius died at Eburacum (York), and Constantine was hailed by the troops in Britain as his successor. To avoid civil war, Galerius named Severus the Augustus in the West and made Constantine his Caesar. Maxentius was angered by this act and, with the help of Rome's populace and the PRAETORIAN GUARD, declared himself emperor.

Galerius ordered Severus to march on Italy, only to have Maximian come out of retirement. Severus was defeated and later killed. Galerius took up the campaign, failing almost as badly. Meanwhile, Constantine married Fausta, daughter of Maximian, and the old emperor himself tried to overthrow his son Maxentius, who was forced to flee to Constantine when he failed. The entire fabric of government was thus rent. Galerius and his colleagues consequently summoned Diocletian from his gardens at Split and convened the Conference of Carnuntum in 308. With Diocletian's help the tetrarchy was supposedly restored. Galerius was to be the Augustus, alongside LICINIUS, with Maximinus Daia and Constantine as Caesars. Maxentius was outlawed, and Maximian ordered to return to retired life.

Events had taken such a strange turn that no such easy a solution was possible. Maximian tried to conspire against Constantine and had to be besieged at Massilia in 310, where he died, possibly a suicide. Maxentius refused to yield Italy, and Maximinus Daia, outraged at being passed over in favor of Licinius, claimed the title for himself. At one point there were as many as six Augusti: Galerius, Maximinus Daia, Maximian, Licinius, Maxentius and Constantine. Maximian's death pointed the way to a lasting political answer, the eradication of the claimants, one by one.

Precisely what Diocletian had hoped to avoid was now inevitable. Galerius succumbed to illness in 311, and the following year Constantine crushed Maxentius and Licinius defeated Maximinus Daia. That left only two rivals for supreme control, and in 323 Constantine won the battle of ADRIANOPLE. The tetrarchy became only a memory.

¤ TETRICUS, GAIUS PIUS ESUVIUS (fl. 3rd century A.D.) Last of the Gallic usurpers, Tetricus reigned in Gaul from 270 to 273. A senator from an old noble family, he was serving in Gallia Aquitania as governor in 270 when the army proclaimed him emperor. His decision to elevate his son to the rank of Caesar did nothing to help a regime that was soon troubled with barbarian inroads along the Rhine and a resurgent central government under AURELIAN. Tetricus very wisely submitted to Aurelian in 273 and was allowed to retire (his son eventually taking his place in the SENATE).

¤ TEUTOBURG FOREST Site of a massacre in 9 A.D. in Germania in which the Roman General Quinctilius VARUS was wiped out by the Cheruscan leader, ARMINIUS. Forever after, the Teutoburg Forest was seen as one of the worst defeats ever inflicted on a Roman army. After the successful campaigns of Drusus the Elder, TIBERIUS and other legates in Germania, Emperor AUGUSTUS decided to push for full provincial development of the wild German interior. To accomplish this the emperor appointed Varus to be governor. Varus had a reputation more for administration than martial skill and seemed the perfect choice for the intense Romanization of the Germanic tribes.

Unfortunately, Augustus was overly optimistic about the temperament of the Germans. When revolts erupted under the leadership of Arminius and his Cheruscans, Varus was ill-equipped to meet the challenge. He rashly departed from his summer camp, moving over impossible terrain and listening all the while to his German advisors. They led him through the Teutoburg Forest where, bogged down by his baggage train and unable to meet any attack, he was suddenly assaulted by the Cherusci and their few German allies.

As was the case at ADUATUCA many years before, the Romans put up the best resistance they could, but Varus lost heart and killed himself. His lieutenants fought bravely but were outnumbered and unable to move. A slaughter ensued as three legions were hacked to pieces, the few survivors being placed in wicker cages and burned alive. Rome's forts east of the Rhine fell to the triumphant Germans, and the Empire received a terrible blow to its expansion policy for the region.

¤ TEUTONS One of the largest Germanic tribes of antiquity. The Teutons, or Teutones, lived in the region of the Baltic Sea, near Jutland, with the equally extensive Cimbri. Sometime in the late 2nd century B.C., both peoples moved from their northern homes, marching through the Celtic peoples of Gaul and hoping to settle in the area of GALLIA NARBONENSIS. Marius destroyed the Teutons in 102 B.C. at the battle of Aquae Sextiae, but some tribes in Gaul subsequently claimed descent from the remnant. Over time, the name Teuton was used generally to refer to any German tribe.

¤ THAMUGADI (Timgad) A Roman city in Africa, situated in NUMIDIA, just north of the Aurasius Mountains and to the east of Lambaesis. Thamugadi was founded in 100 A.D. by Emperor TRAJAN. As part of the intensive Romanization programs, only Roman army veterans were used to populate the colony. In turn, they helped to defend southern Numidia from the frequent incursions of local nomads. Built with the assistance of the III Augusta Legion, Thamugadi was remarkable because of its organization, with its streets laid out in perfect order. The city was, in fact, a nearly flawless square, with the usual Roman architectural necessities: baths, a basilica, a forum, the Arch of Trajan and the Temple of Genius Coloniae. Thamugadi was also an example of too much growth in too confined an area. By the late 2nd century A.D. any new monuments or buildings had to be placed outside of the city. Such was the case with the new baths, the temple and the capitol.

¤ THAPSUS Ancient town on the east coast of modern Tunisia that was the site of a battle fought in February of 46 B.C. between Julius CAESAR and the combined remnants of the Pompeian forces. After defeating King Pharnaces at the battle of Zela in 47, Caesar understood that he had a great deal of fighting to do in Africa. In 49, his lieutenant there, G. Scribonius Curio, was defeated and slain by the Pompeians, supported by King JUBA of Numidia. Their position was strengthened in 48, when the survivors of the battle of PHARSALUS poured over the Mediterranean. By the time that Caesar was ready to deal with them, the Pompeians possessed 60,000 men under the command of such notables as METELLUS SCIPIO, King Juba, Sextus and Gnaeus POMPEY, as well as Titus LABIENUS and CATO UTICENSIS. Against them came Caesar himself, with his veteran legions, 40,000 strong.

Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum in Sicily on October 8, 47. After arriving on the African coast, he set out for Ruspina but was nearly defeated by Labienus and Petreius. Caesar escaped brilliantly, taking up a strong enough position to allow his reinforcements to arrive. There followed a period of marches and counterattacks, as at the battle of Ilerda, in which Caesar compelled the Pompeians to give battle on the worst possible terms. Only a general of Caesar's caliber could be gifted or lucky enough to bring that about.

With the town of Thapsus nearby, the Pompeian-supported city that had served as bait, Caesar dressed his lines. The famed Tenth Legion was on the right flank, leading the charge that shattered Scipio's left. Helpless to stave off disaster, Scipio and his officers fled from the field. In a rare act of cruelty, Caesar's normally efficient and disciplined legions massacred the remaining enemy. Caesar was now a master of Africa. He was, however, aware of the fact that others had escaped, including Gnaeus and Sextus Pompey and Labienus. The war was not yet over. See also CIVIL WAR, FIRST TRIUMVIRATE.

¤ THEATER One of the great public and private past-times for the Romans; developed during the Republic and very popular during the imperial era. There were several types of performance, including comedy, drama, pantomime and tragedy, although favorite types depended upon the social level of the audiences.

Theatrical performances owed their development to Greek culture and its foremost literary representative, Livius Andronicus, who came to Rome as a captive in 200 B.C. While there had been plays and productions prior to the time of Andronicus, it was this brilliant writer and translator who made available to the Romans the finest examples of original Greek tragedies and comedies. Eager successors either continued his tradition or initiated entirely new forms.

Roman or Italian comedy actually began with the so-called versus Fescennini from Etruria, introduced around 390 B.C. as part of the general mime drama. The satire, a distinctly Roman creation, came from this early period and left an influence on later comedy by introducing such elements as music, dance and verse. The Atellan Farce, or Atellana, was noteworthy, not only as comedy but also as a composition form with definite characters and traits.

Greek comedy or, more correctly, the New Greek comedy arrived with Livius Andronicus, who made translations of established Greek plays. The Roman imagination did the rest. Greek works were called palliata, after the Greek cloak, the pallium. In the 2nd century B.C., the togata made its appearance. Again named after a cloak, or toga, this comedy was a departure from the Hellenic mold, for the stories, characters and atmosphere were Italian. Thus, two different styles of comedy co-existed, the Greek and the Italian, represented by the Atellan Farce and satire. Actual Latin Comedy was written by Plautus and Terence, many of whose plays survived. They were modeled after their Greek predecessors. Mimic comedy was equally produced, and by the end of the Republic was the favorite theatrical fare, remaining so throughout the imperial era. With easily understood plots, broad humor and lightweight intellectual demands, the comedy had a wide appeal to the easily distracted mobs attending the festivals or games.

Famous writers of comedies, aside from Terence and Plautus, were Ennius, Naevius, Turpilius, Novius, Pomponius, Publilius, Syrus and Laberius. Traditionally, the play consisted of a mixture of verse in iambic trimeter and straight dialogue. Music, called cantica, was used to score the action or as interludes usually played on the flute.

Although Roman authors never matched the Greek models introduced by Livius Andronicus, there were some brilliant successes, most notably the purely Roman tragic form of the fabulae praetextate or praetexta. The fabulae were tragedies composed along the lines of a Roman character, with sources based on Italian or Roman history. The authors of the tragedies were some of the more notable literary figures in Rome: Naevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius, during the Republic; and the imperial writers, Asinius POLLIO, OVID, POMPONIUS SECUNDUS, Curiatus Materna and SENECA THE YOUNGER. Seneca wrote Hercules Troades, Phoenissae, Medea, Phaedra, Oedipus, Agamemnon, Hercules Oetaeus and Thyestes. Octavia, the only extant praetexta, was not composed by Seneca, although attributed to him.

Drama (in the ancient sense both comedy and tragedy) took a more tenuous path to production. Considered a useful part of public or private spectacles, dramatic performances were staged by actor troupes called the grex. Their subject matter was chosen by the director (dominus gregis), who purchased the rights to a play from an often unknown playwright. The acquistion of a play was purely on speculation. If the production failed, no money was paid to the director. With dark themes, the drama was less popular with the mob but found an audience in the more educated upper classes, where plays might be given at parties or even at funerals.

The profession of acting presented some interesting contradictions. Acting was considered an infamia (disreputable), among the lowest of the Romans in social status, but some actors obtained reputations, adulation and ado ration from people of all walks of life, and others became the lovers of empresses or victims of emperors. Most ac- tors began as slaves or as FREEDMEN who had been sent to work as members of a troupe. At first despised off-stage, the influence of the Greeks was seen in the gradual acceptance of actors. By the late Republic, two actors, Roscius the comedian and Aesopus the tragedian, frequented the best social circles and were becoming wealthy.

With the founding of the Roman Empire, the acting profession took a major step forward. As all forms of performances became associated with either public recreation or private display, the lavishness of productions increased. Costumes were improved, decorations or sets made larger, and even the size of the cast grew from the traditional Greek three to many. In the Theater of Pompey, actual horses were used to show the sack of a city. Women were not a key part of the Roman theater. They were allowed some roles in mimes, and not until very late did they appear in comedies. In drama or in tragedy their parts were played by men. It was Roscius who introduced the wearing of masks to heighten effect. Previously makeup and wigs served the same purpose.

The two most famous actors of the Augustan Age were Bathyllus and Pylades. While Pylades was eventually exiled, his rival was an excellent example of the rising station of the actor. Originally from Alexandria, he served as the freedman of Gaius Maecenas, who became his patron. With such help, Bathyllus received money and approval from AUGUSTUS. Later, in the reign of GAIUS CALIGULA, Mnester, the most famous and arrogant actor of the day, secured the favor of the emperor. Surviving Caligula's fall, he was honored at the court of CLAUDIUS. Unfortunately, he attracted MESSALLINA and spent much time unsuccessfully avoiding her unwanted attentions. When she was finally put to death in 48 A.D., Mnester joined her, mainly because of the plottings of Claudius' freedmen. A similar fate was suffered by two actors named Paris. The first tried to teach NERO how to mime, and when the emperor proved a dismal failure, Paris was put to death in 67. The other Paris, loved by DOMITIAN'S wife, Domitia Longina, was hunted down by the emperor and murdered in the street.

THEATERS AND AMPHITHEATERS Places of amusement for the Romans and an integral part of the government's commitment to entertaining the masses. In the provinces the structures were symbols of successful Romanization and the claim to civilization.

Theaters were virtually unknown in Rome throughout much of the Republic, owing to the absence of organized theatrical performances until the late 3rd century B.C. Around 240 B.C., a drama was given in the circus, but the stage was torn down after each performance. Subsequently, senatorial opposition made construction of a permanent theater with seats very difficult. Even after the conquest of Greece and the importation of Hellencic culture, senators still opposed theaters, and such standing structures were not permitted.

Aemilius Scaurus, in 58 B.C., erected a wooden theater complete with nearly 80,000 seats and thousands of bronze statues. POMPEY THE GREAT took the decisive step in 55 B.C. of building a theater out of stone (the CURIA POMPEY). In 44 B.C, Julius CAESAR was stabbed to death in the Curia Pompey when the SENATE met there because of the unavailability of their normal curia. A fire broke out in 22 A.D. but was extinguished quickly by the Praetorian Prefect SEJANUS, who also saved the surrounding buildings, receiving a statue from Emperor TIBERIUS, who helped repair the damage. Cornelius Balbus funded a second stone theater in 13 B.C. but was overshadowed by Augustus, who dedicated in the same year the Theater of Marcellus, named after his nephew who died in 23 B.C. These were the main examples of stone theaters in the Empire; from then on, most would be constructed out of wood.

The Roman theater was usually in the shape of a semicircle, with seats sectioned off for the various levels of society. Two balconies over the cavea (where the musicians played) were for the emperors and their retinues, including the Vestal Virgins. Other rows were for senators, knights, ambassadors and the rest of Roman society. As with other public spectacles, admission was free, entry being gained by the tesserae, or tickets, handed out to the public by the government.

Roman amphitheaters were circular in design to afford everyone a view of the staged events, which were normally GLADIATOR displays or productions involving animals (the venationes).

The first amphitheater in Italy was built not in Rome but in nearby CAMPANIA, where Scribonius Curio erected a wooden stadium in 50 B.C., although his creation was actually the result of combining two theaters. Julius CAESAR funded one in 46 B.C., while Statilius TAURUS constructed the first stone amphitheater in 29 B.C Destroyed by the great fire of 64 A.D., Taurus' structure was rebuilt by NERO, but this time out of wood.

Provincial and Italian amphitheaters actually displayed considerable beauty and imagination. The structures in ARLES and NEMAUSUS (Nimes) were particually impressive. Unfortunately, a Flavian project, the Amphitheatrum Flavium, dominated the attentions of the Empire. This was, of course, the masterpiece of the COLOSSEUM, the zenith of amphitheater construction. See also ART AND ARCHITECTURE; CIRCUS; FESTIVALS; LUDI; TESSERA; and individual entries for circuses.

¤ THEMISTIUS (c. 317-388 or 389 A.D.) A leading philosopher of the late 4th century who was a writer, orator, educator and political advisor. Born at Byzantium, he came from a Paphlagonian family, his father the philosopher Eugenius. After studying under Hierocles at Sinope, near Pontus, he returned home in 337, to CONSTANTINOPLE. Taking up a career of teaching, Themistius centered on Aristotle and by 350 was considered a highly successful philosopher and orator. He earned wide acclaim by delivering a speech (extant) to Constantius II. A member of the SENATE in 355, henceforth he was a prominent member of the new senate of Constantinople, serving as one of its envoys to Constantius when he was at Rome in 357. As the last proconsul of Constantinople (before creation of the prefectship of the city), Themistius aided in the recruiting of senators for the Senate of Constantinople, now given equal power to that of its Roman counterpart.

Subsequently, Themistius was a confidant and favorite of three Christian emperors, despite his own PAGANISM, and was the author of a letter to JULIAN to remind him in 361 of the duties of a king. A speech to JOVIAN in 363 celebrated the brief-reigning monarch's first consulship, followed by numerous addresses and panegyrics to VALENS and later to THEODOSIUS i. All of his oratory reflected his own views in favor of fair rule and toleration in religious matters. Theodosius probably had a hand in the appointment of Themistius to the post of PREFECT OF THE CITY in 384. Although the philosopher was much criticized and left office after only a few months, he took care of the city and continued the education of Archadius during Theodosius' trip to the West. In 350 or 351, Themistius met the famed orator LIBANIUS, developing a friendship with him that lasted for many years. A quarrel erupted in 362, but by 364 the two were once more in touch, continuing to correspond until 388. Themistius was also married twice, the second time to a Phrygian woman.

¤ THEODORA (fl. late 3rd century A.D.) Stepdaughter of Maximian and wife of CONSTANTIUS i CHLORUS, whom she married around 293. Her union with Constantius was a purely political one, terminating his marriage to HELENA, mother of CONSTANTINE the Great. As the spouse first of a Caesar and then an Augustus, Theodora bore six children: Hannibalianus, lulius Constantius, Flavius Delmatius, Constantia, Eutropia and Anastasia. Constantine gave great honors to his mother, apparently neglecting Theodora; her children, however, were given a role in the court. Theodora's parents were Afranius Hannibalianus and eutropia.

¤ THEODORET (c. 393-466 A.D.) Bishop of Cyrrhus, ardent admirer and defender of nestorius and a victim of church politics in the 5th century. Coming from Antioch, Theodoret entered a monastery sometime around 415 or 416 after giving away his possessions. Consecrated against his will as bishop of Cyrrhus in 423, he found himself embroiled in the bitter dispute between Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, and cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, over matters of doctrine. Despite the Council of Ephesus in 431, Theodoret continued to support Nestorius against Cyril and his successor Dioscorus. He was deposed and anathematized in 449 by the Council of Ephesus, which received the name Latrocinium or "Bandit Council." Exiled, he was summoned to Chalcedon in 451 and forced to accept the condemnation of Nestorius, thus spending the remaining years of his life as the head of his diocese.

Theodoret was an accomplished writer, although few of his works are extant. Notable among his compositions were a collection of heretical fables dealing with Arianism, Nestorianism and Eutychianism; a church history from 323 to 428; a history of clerics, covering the lives of the monks; and the important apologetic, Cure for the Pagan State of Mind, a carefully composed defense of Christianity, with direct comparisons between Christian and pagan thinking.

¤ THEODORUS, FLAVIUS MALLIUS (fl. late 4th century A.D.) Government official whose life and career were preserved by Claudian, the pagan panegyricist. Theodorus began as an advocate (advocatus) but was appointed a governor (377), magister memoriae (379), probably comes sacrarum largitionum (380) and then Praetorian prefect of Galliarum under Gratian in 382. After retiring to his home in Mediolanum (Milan) he became an influential figure in literary and philosophical circles, including among the Neoplatonists. A writer, he authored several books on philosophy, earning the respect of St. Augustine, who dedicated to him the De Beata Vita (On the Happy Life), although he came to regret this action because of his return to politics. From 397 to 399 he held the rank of Praetorian prefect of Italy, Africa and illyricum, through the influence of stilicho. Through his initiative, Milan was favored over Rome. He was consul in 399.

¤ THEODOSIUS I (d. 395 A.D.) Called "the Great" because of his ardent, although often cruel Christianity; emperor of the East from 379-392 and sole master of the Roman Empire from 394 to 395. Like his father, the highly successful Count theodosius, the emperor was a Spaniard, born at Cauca. While his father emerged as one of the foremost generals of the time, Theodosius followed him into the army, eventually serving as a staff member for the count himself (c. 368). Around 373 or 374, he was made governor of Moesia Prima, also called Moesia Superior, defeating the sarmatians along the Danube. His career was seemingly terminated in 375, when his father was executed by the imperial government for treason.

Having retired to his estates in Hispania, Theodosius was suddenly called back to duty in 378 by Emperor Gratian, in the wake of the disaster at the battle of adrianople, in which Emperor valens was killed. He was given the Danubian frontier as his theater of operations, launching such vengeful campaigns against the goths that he was made Eastern emperor by Gratian at Sirmium on January 19, 379.

Years of war followed, but by 382 the emperor came to the conclusion that a total victory was impossible and negotiated an agreement with the Goths, which allowed the tribes to settle on land in Thrace and to receive imperial subsidies. In return, the barbarians promised to supply contingents for the armies and to maintain loyalty to the emperors, marcus aurelius had tried the same thing in the past, but Theodosius gave the barbarians vast territories, which proved in time to be dangerous, but also enlisted the Visigoths, who were useful.

In 383 Gratian was murdered by the usurper from britannia, the Spaniard, Magnus maximus. When Maximus occupied Gaul, he received recognition from Theodosius, who may have preferred a fellow countryman to Gratian. The usurper invaded Italy in 387 and spurned Theodosius' gesture. Theodosius organized an army of barbarian units and headed west, routing Maximus and beheading him at Aquileia. In his reorganization of the West, he transferred large parts of Macedonia and Moesia Superior to the Eastern Empire, placing them under the jurisdiction of the newly created prefecture of illyricum. This territory subsequently became a point of contention between the empires.

While in the West, Theodosius fell under the influence of Ambrose, bishop of Milan. The emperor had always been devoutly Christian, persecuting eagerly all heretics and reversing the Arian favor shown by Valens. This policy of enforced Christianization culminated in 391 with the closure of pagan temples. In large measure his views were reinforced by Ambrose, who ensured that the prelates of the church, especially the bishop of Nicephorium, escaped punishment for wrongdoing. Such was the position of Ambrose that in 390 he excommunicated Theodosius for massacring 7,000 people in Thessalonica for civil disorder—until the emperor did public penance.

Another episode in the West ended in complete triumph for Theodosius but at a terrible price. When he left the Western provinces in 391, he placed the magister militum, arbogast, as caretaker of the imperial administration of valentinian ii. The following year Valentinian died, and Arbogast elevated a former schoolteacher, Eugenius, to the throne. War began once more, ending in 394 with the battle of frigidus. Theodosius won the struggle, achieving unification of both imperial domains. Such unity was shortlived, for Theodosius died at Mediolanum (Milan) in January of 395. Theodosius was succeeded by his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius. Although his reign had been characterized by civil war and humiliating settlements with the Goths, his lasting achievement was the creation of a dynasty through his two empresses, Aelia Flavia Flaccilla and Galla. His children were Arcadius, Honorius and Aelia Galla Placidia.

¤ THEODOSIUS II (401-450 A.D.) Emperor of the East from 408 to 450 and the longest reigning ruler in the history of the Roman Empire, heading a government that epitomized the difference between the sound East and the increasingly chaotic and doomed West. Also, backed by the army and a fine administration he was proof of the degree to which Christianity had permeated the sociopolitical structure of imperial Rome.

Theodosius was the son of Emperor Arcadius and Aelia Eudoxia and was thus the grandson of theodosius i. Born at Constantinople, he was Arcadius' only male heir, succeeding to the throne in 408. He had already been raised to the rank of Augustus, and his claims were cemented by Arcadius' naming of yazdagird i, the king of Persia, as his guardian. The early years of his reign were remarkably smooth, mainly because of the efforts of the Praetorian Prefect anthemius. This gifted and loyal regent improved the Empire from 404-414. The grain supply of Constantinople was reorganized, the defenses of the city were strengthened, and the Walls of Anthemius, or the Walls of Theodosius, finished in 313. His services were terminated in 414 by Theodosius' sister, Aelia pulcheria, who, though only two years his senior, assumed the title of Augusta as well as near-total control of the state.

Pulcheria became the main influence in the life of the young emperor, supervising his education, indoctrination into Christianity and even his marriage to Aelia Eudocia in 421. By 416, Theodosius was ready to take up the burdens of office, but the mark of Pulcheria was irrevocable. Theodosius preferred matters of the intellect, especially religion and literature. As a result, Constantinople blossomed with a university boasting departments in Greek, Latin, philosophy and law. An interest in legal matters culminated with the monumental code of Theodosius (Codex Theodosianus), completed in 438 with the cooperation of valentinian in. In 16 books the decrees and enactments of the previous years were collected and codified, preserving forever the nature of Roman law in the 5th century. The codes served as the basis for the equally important Code of Justinian.

Theodosius' preference for the less bloody aspects of rule, combined with an intensely devout nature and a pleasant demeanor, never changed. As he grew older, he paid even less attention to the murderous aspects of his office. Fortunately, he was surrounded by competent officials, allowing the administration to continue. Internal feuds did flourish, naturally. The eunuch, Chrysaphius zstommas, replaced Pulcheria in the mid-440s as the most powerful advisor at court. Just before Theodosius died the eunuch fell, mainly through the efforts of Pulcheria and the Eastern generals. Relations between the capitals of East and West were repaired with the placing of Valentinian III on the throne of the Western Empire in 425. Not only did Theodosius travel to Ravenna to crown Valentinian, but in 437 he had his daughter, Licinia Eudoxia, marry Valentinian as well.

In foreign policy, Theodosius was highly successful in some areas and a failure in others. Around 422 he made a lasting peace with the Persian Empire that brought tranquility to the often war-ravaged Eastern provinces. The treaty remained in effect for over a century and was a contributing factor to the military and political vitality of Constantinople. While aid was sent to the West against alaric and the Visigoths, the East was faced with its own crisis, the Huns. Chrysaphius Zstommas nearly bankrupted the treasury by paying expensive subsidies to the Hunnic armies, a blackmail that ended with his fall. Despite the efforts Of TWO MAGISTER MILITUMS, ARDABURIUS and ASPAR, much of the Danube was ravaged, and the question of what to do about the barbarians troubled the palace. A solution was not found in the time of Theodosius, for he died on July 28, 450, after falling from a horse just outside of the city. He was succeeded immediately by Marcian.

¤ THEODOSIUS, FLAVIUS (Count Theodosius) (d. 375 A.D.) A formidable general in the late part of the 4th century and founder of the House of Theodosius through his son, theodosius i, the Great. A Spaniard, he was serving as a comes rei militari in the West in 368-369, when Jovinus was recalled from Britain and he was sent to the isles as his replacement. In a campaign lauded by the historian Ammianus Marcellinus, the count restored Roman supremacy in Britain. For his victory, valentinian i promoted him to magister equitum in 369, again replacing Jovinus. Years of war followed as Theodosius served as Valentinian's chief general. He defeated the Alani, the Alamanni and the sarmatians. In 373 he was dispatched to Africa to quell a local uprising led by Firmus (see gildo). Perhaps because of his political influence and potential for meddling in the succession, he was executed under mysterious circumstances at Carthage in 375. Survived by his wife Thermantia and his son, he made it possible for his family to lay claim to the throne in 379.

¤ THEON OF SMYRNA (fl 2nd century A.D.) Mathematician from Smyrna who authored an introduction to the field, in the tradition of the Peripatetic school. He was overshadowed by his great contemporary, Claudius ptolemy. See also mathematics.

¤ THEOPHANES OF MYTILENE (d. after 44 B.C.) Nicknamed Gnaeus Pompeius; historian and one of the closest friends and advisors of pompey the great. From Mytilene on Lesbos, he stayed at the side of Pompey right up until the triumvir's departure for Egypt after Pharsalus. As a writer, Theophanes distinguished himself as the leading panegyrist in the cause of his patron, composing a history of Pomepy's campaigns in the East.

¤ THEOPHILUS (1) (d.c. 412 A.D.) Bishop of Alexandria from 385 to 412; one of the most violent anti-pagans in the Church, who also worked tirelessly to improve his own religio-political position. As head of the Christians in Egypt, he suppressed ruthlessly the pagans, destroying the Serapeum in 391. Originally a supporter of Origenism, he turned against it, using his campaign against the sect to battle the see of Constantinople and St. john chrysostom for the supremacy of the Eastern Church. In 403 he manipulated the Council of Constantinople to condemn Chrysostom. His nephew was his successor, the equally severe cyril.

¤ THEOPHILUS (2) (fl. 2nd century A.D.) Bishop of Antioch and Christian apologist who was a distinguished theologian, writing numerous treatises on Christian doctrine. In these he expressed the superiority of the creed over paganism. He was important in his development of the nature of God and the Trinity. Little of his output has survived.

¤ THESSALONICA Also called Therma, Saloniki, Thessalonika and Salonica; an important city in Macedonia at the head of the Gulf of Therme, south of Pella and on the economically vital Via Egnatia. Known originally as Therma, the site was old but of little consequence, even during the glory years of Athens. Later, possessed by the Macedonians, the city was developed by King Cassander (c. 315 B.C.) and named after the sister of Alexander the Great. It grew in size until occupied by the Romans and made the capital of the province of Macedonia (c. 148 b.c).

Thessalonica was administered by Cicero for a time and served throughout the civil war between pompey the great and Julius caesar as the headquarters for the senate, as Rome was in Caesar's hands. Its loyalty to Pompey did not cause a loss of status upon the foundation of the Empire. Not only did the governor have his residence there but also a high degree of independence was retained. A local government, headed by the so-called politarchs, was allowed from the time of Augustus (ruled 27 B.C.-14 A.D.).

The honor of being made a colonia was not given until the 3rd century A.D., but Roman building was extensive from the 2nd century until the early 4th, when Hellenic designs and fortifications were changed to meet Roman architectural needs. When Thessalonica was chosen as the capital for the territory given to Emperor galerius as part of the tetrarchy, Galerius constructed a large palace to the east of the city and a circus just to the south of the Via Egnatia. To the north was Galerius' mausoleum, finished sometime before 311. It was ironic that Thessalonica, the base for Galerius' personal campaign against Christianity, should in turn serve as an orthodox Christian center. St. Paul visited the city in 50 or 51, establishing the second Christian community in Europe. Thessalonica later was a bishopric and, by the late 4th or 5th century, was closely connected to the papacy.

¤ THESSALY In Latin, Thessalia; the largest territory in Greece, it encompassed the flatlands to the east of epirus and just south of Macedonia. Thessaly was supposedly founded by descendants of Hercules, who became kings of the wild tribes in the region but were later deposed, their families emerging instead as the ruling nobility. In time, the Thessalians joined together to form separate confederations under individual councils, although oligarchical powers were retained by the nobles. They served Philip of Macedonia and Alexander the Great and fell under Roman domination after the battle of Cynoscephalae in 197 B.C.

For administrative purposes, the Romans decided to utilize the sense of independence that was a trademark of the Thessalians. Attached for practical and historical purposes to Macedonia, Thessaly was allowed its own local league and a Koinon, a version of the concilium. Under the reorganization of diocletian, Thessaly was made an actual province, attached to the diocese of moesia. See also ACHAEA.

¤ THIRTY TYRANTS Name given in the Historia Augusta (see scriptores historiae augustae) to a group of usurpers in the middle of the 3rd century A.D. Chosen to parallel the famous tyrants of Athens, the writings on the lists of Thirty Tyrants were supposedly composed by Trebellius Pollio. They were highly dubious and partly fictitious, designed to discredit the regime of Gallienus. While 32 separate usurpers were actually mentioned, only nine were known to exist at the time of Gallienus; the others were either in different reigns or never existed at all. Thus, the entire Thirty Tyrants is more than questionable as a historical source.

Those usurpers verified either through coinage or sources, were, in the order of coverge in the Historia: Cyriades, Postumus, Lollianus (Laelianus), victorinus, Mariius, Ingenuus, Regalianus, Aureolus, Macrianus, Macrianus the Younger, Quietus, Odaenath, Maeonius, Ballista, valens, Valens the Elder, Aemilianus, Tetricus the Elder, Tetricus the Younger, zenobia, Victoria and Titus. The suspect usurpers were: Postumus the Younger, Victorinus the Younger, Herodes, Piso, Saturninus, Trebellianus, Herennianus, Timolaus, Celsus and Censorinus. Sulpicia Dryantilla, the wife of Regalianus, can be added to the list, for she appeared prominently on coinage.

¤ THRACE The large territory south of the Danube, north of the Aegean, west of the black sea and east of Macedonia. Thrace was one of the Rome's important Danubian provinces, protecting the frontier and also securing the lines of communication from Macedonia, via Byzantium, to Bithynia and Asia Minor. Late in being annexed, the province was of even greater value to the empire after the 4th century A.D. because of the presence of Constantinople, the Eastern capital, on the Bosporus.

Thrace was an ancient land, still considered in the time of Herodotus to be a wild and cruel place. Its inhabitants, a conglomeration of tribes of mainly Indo-European stock, were savage, warlike and brave. Although independent, they developed certain civilized habits and produced numerous Greek poets. Greek colonization brought Hellenic influence but the two cultures were never very compatible. A Thracian kingdom was founded in the 5th century b.c, remaining until the time of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great. Macedonia was henceforth the master of Thrace until 168 B.C. and the battle of Pydna, when the Romans defeated the Macedonians. Thrace, however, was left under the administrative control of Macedonia.

The importance of this pre-imperial history was in the ties between the Thracians and the Macedonians, a connection that had far-reaching consequences. In the revolt of Macedonia in 149 b.c, the Thracians were a major support to the rebels. It was not surprising that, after Rome seized Macedonia, it subjected Thrace to attack, often in responce to raids and incursions. With the aim of stabilizing the region, a series of kings was established by the Romans, preferably loyal clients to Rome.

Rhescuporis was the first of the Thracian monarchs. He was not a friend to Caesar or his successor Octavian (augustus), but aided pompey the great and Cassius and Brutus. Much of the country's future was shaped subsequently by the dynast Rhoemetalces I, who wisely sided with Octavian against Antony at Actium. With the founding of the Roman Empire, Rhoemetalces was allowed to keep his throne, largely with the help of a Roman army, eventually receiving all of Thrace afer being expelled briefly in 11 B.C. by the Bessi. Rhoemetalces lived until 12 A.D. when, upon his death, the realm was partitioned between his son cotys of Thrace and his brother rhescuporis.

Intrigues characterized the last years of the monarchy. In 19, Rhescuporis attacked and killed Cotys. tiberius removed him, but again divided Thrace, this time between the sons of Rhescuporis—Rhoemetalces and Cotys. Rhescuporis was taken to Rome, accused by Cotys' widow, Antonia Tryphaena, condemned, exiled and later put to death. One son of Cotys, Rhoemetalces III, was granted his father's domain in 39 by Emperor gaius caligula. It is possible that he was granted all of Thrace, for in 46 a King Rhoemetalces was murdered by his wife. Claudius, having had enough of the Thracians, annexed the country and the province of Thrace was born.

Opposition to provincialization was acute, but the Roman administration was hampered more by the absence of urbanization. A procurator of the Equestrian (equites) class was at first appointed but trajan changed this to a Praetorian legate who was aided by procurators. The central government was based in Perinthus. Because of the lack of cities, a system was adopted similar to the one in Cappadocia. Thrace was divided into several strategiai, or local districts, headed by a srategos named by the governor. Tribes were answerable through their chief, called a phylarch, from phyle, the name of the tribal unit.

The Romans focused on the creation of cities and colonies. Under Claudius and vespasian early colonization took place at Apri, Deultum and Philippopolis, the latter by veterans. Through Trajan's imperial policy more colonies were founded, and the gradual flowering of Thrace's urban life commenced. Such cities as Plotinopolis, Marcianopolis, Traianopolis were very successful but also tended to inculcate the Thracians with Grecian lifestyles rather than Latin. Where the native tongue was not spoken, Greek was preferred; in the villages, even Greek was little known. Rome's greatest need was to create a province that was stable enough and urban enough to support the chain-link system of the Danubian frontier. In this Rome succeeded, but beyond this, hopes were limited.

Thrace was one of the provinces that paid for itself, largely through the flesh and blood of its inhabitants. Long accustomed to a martial lifestyle, the Thracians made excellent soldiers, especially in the auxilia of the legions. Economic life was a combination of mining, agriculture and some trade along the Danube and the Black Sea. Growth and financial expansion were always hindered by the presence of the destabilizing barbarians just beyond the frontier. This was most true in the 3rd century A.D., when the province suffered terrible privations at the hands of the goths. King Kniva of the Goths earned lasting notoriety by campaigning in Thrace and then destroying Emperor Decius at Abrittus in 251. Over a century later, in 378, Emperor valens was annihilated at adrianople in southern Thrace, again at the hands of the Goths.

With the reforms of Emperor diocletian in the late 3rd century and the subsequent Constantinian shift of imperial might to Constantinople, Thrace was not overlooked. Further cities were constructed and a diocese of Thrace was formed, comprising the province of Moesia Inferior, Scythia, Thracia, Rhodope, Haemimontus and Europa. Such bureaucratic steps, while improving life to some degree, did nothing to prevent the continual ravaging of Thrace by the barbarians in the 4th and 5th centuries.

¤ THRASEA PAETUS, PUBLIUS CLODIUS (d. 66 A.D.) The most famous Stoic dissenter during the reign of nero (54-68 A.D.); from Patavium (Padua), he studied philosophy before taking up his seat in the senate. Thrasea Paetus subsequently acted as the conscience of the state, opposing many of Nero's more abusive pieces of legislation but also receiving censure from his fellow Stoics for ignoring matters of supreme importance in favor of lesser ones. His reputation for stubborn moral opposition was such that tacitus (1), his greatest admirer, called him "virtue itself." Thrasea married Arria the Younger, daughter of the noted Arria the Elder. His idol was the Republican orator Cato Uticensis, whom he honored with a biography, and he was a close friend of Persius, a relative of Arria. Associates also included the future Emperor vespasian and Demetrius the Cynic.

Consul Ground 56 A.D., Thrasea was at first mentioned by the historian Tacitus as disliking a motion that would have given the Syracusans more facilities for gladiators. In 59, he walked out of the Curia when it was proposed to make agrippina's birthday a day full of evil omen, earning the dislike of Nero, who ensured that he was not among the delegates sent to offer senatorial condolences upon the death of the imperial daughter in 63. By 66, Thrasea had neglected to attend the Juvenalia and had been absent on purpose when divine honors were given to Empress Poppaea. His fate was sealed. Capito Cossutianus charged him with treason. Condemned by Nero, Thrasea killed himself by opening his veins in a scene recorded with suitable emotion and drama.

¤ THRASYLLUS (d. 36 A.D.) Private astrologer of Emperor tiberius; a master of astrology who became attached to the household of Tiberius c. 4 A.D., while that eventual emperor was on Rhodes. As Tiberius himself was fascinated by the stars, he allowed Thrasyllus to become an intimate, regretting this decision eventually. The astrologer would have been thrown to his death from a rocky cliff on the island had he not supposedly predicted that he felt himself to be in danger and that the ship then sailing into the harbor of Rhodes brought good news. Right on both counts, Thrasyllus accompanied his patron to Rome on the same ship that had informed Tiberius of the deaths of Gaius and Lucius Caesar.

For the rest of his life he was a constant companion of Tiberius, even in 14, at the side of Augustus in his final days. After Tiberius became emperor, the ruler consulted him every day. Aside from his optimistic predictions, the astrologer used his influence to prevent executions by declaring that Tiberius need not be troubled with them as the emperor had many years to live and need not be concerned with killing them immediately. Thrasyllus died one year before Tiberius, in 36. His son was the equally successful astrologer, balbillus.

¤ THUGGA (Dougga) Old town at the center of the province of Africa, to the southeast of Bulla Regia and southwest of Utica and Carthage. Thugga, once a capital for a smaller Numidian kingdom, later developed into one of the more beautiful Roman communities in Africa. What made the site so interesting was its layout, a hill town with an impressive capital at the summit.

¤ THYSDRUS (El Djem) Small town in Roman Africa, found to the south of Thapsus on the Roman roads leading away from the coastal line of communications and running from Carthage to Tripolitania. The amphitheater there, constructed during the governorship of the future Emperor gordian i (c. 238 A.D.), was one of the largest in Africa.

¤ TIBER The chief river of Italy and one of the most famous in Europe. Known by many other names. Including Tibris, Tybris, Amnis Tiberinus and Thyber, the river was, according to legend, orginally called the Albula but its name was changed to Tiber after Tiberinus, king of Alba, was drowned in its swift current. Emerging from springs in the Apennines near Arretium, the Tiber flows south for over 100 miles to the Nar (Narnia); from then on it is a large, fast but navigable waterway. Continuing south for about 70 miles it connects with the Anio (Teverone), just above Rome, although there are many other tributaries along the entire route.

The Tiber was a dangerous river for navigational purposes and also noted for its flooding and the silt that passed down its length. After the rains, the Tiber overflowed, usually into the lower stretches of Rome. Most attempts to prevent such disasters, even by Augustus, were unsuccessful. Because of the silt that turned the water a muddy yellowish color, the river was nicknamed flavus Tiberis (yellow Tiber). This silt accumulated at the mouth of the river as it poured into the Tyrrhenian Sea just past ostia. Silt made the ports there increasingly difficult to maintain, and Claudius, needing a radical solution, built an artificial mouth.

Politically the Tiber divided two sections of Italia, Etruria to the east and Latium to the west. The Tiber was under the patronage of the divine personification of the river, and a Tiber festival was held every May 14. Normally, a bundle of rushes shaped to resemble a man, the argii, was thrown into the Tiber to appease the divine nature.

¤ TIBERIANUS (fl. 4th century A.D.) Poet who was also probably a successful government official in the latter part of the reign of constantine the Great. Possibly holding posts in Africa and in one of the Spanish provinces, Tiberianus was called by Jerome vir disertus (well-spoken man) in his Chronicles. He served as Praetorian prefect of Gallia in 335. Little of Tiberianus' writings has survived, beyond a few poems. He composed 28 hexameters on the evils of gold and a poem of praise to the Supreme Being, displaying Platonic and Orphic influences. Possibly to his pen can be ascribed a work on a bird and the famous Pervigilium Veneris.

¤ TIBERIAS City on the western shore of the Sea of galilee. It was built during the reign of tiberius (14-37 A.D.) by herod antipas, in gratitude to the emperor for his help politically. In 43 A.D., the city was the scene of a brief meeting between Herod Agrippa I and the client kings of the nearby provinces, including Herod of Chalcis, Antiochus IV of Commagene, Cotys of Armenia Minor, Polemo of Pontus and Sampsigeramus, King of Emesa. Viewed by the governor of Syria, Vibius Marsus, as potentially conspiratorial, the conference was terminated.

There was a strong anti-Roman movement in Tiberias. By 66 A.D. and the outbreak of the Jewish Rebellion, the city was one of the main supporters in Galilee of John of gischala. Other factions included followers of Justus, the political and later literary rival of Galilee's Jewish head, josephus, and a small but vocal pro-Roman party. Thus by the time vespasian was launching his campaign in Palestine, Tiberias was divided, opening its gates in late 67 to the Romans.

¤ TIBERIUS (Tiberius Claudius Nero) (42 b.c-37 A.D.) Emperor of Rome from 14-37 A.D. and, thanks to the writings of tacitus (1), suetonius and others, a ruler whose reign was heavily documented. Tiberius was perhaps the most psychologically complex of the emperors, a figure always suffering from the insurmountable burden of succeeding to the principate the great Augustus. It would also appear that whatever good qualities he possessed were blotted out eventually by the deterioration of his regime in its later years and by his desire to live away from the Rome that he hated.

Tiberius was a member of the family of the Claudians, the son of livia Drusilla and tiberius claudius nero, the ardent Republican. He was born on November 16, 42 b.c, probably on the Palatine Hill in Rome. Most of his early childhood was difficult because his family had to flee Italy as a result of his father's failed revolt against Octavian (Augustus) in 40. They returned in 39, per the terms of the treaty of Misenum, and Octavian fell in love with Livia. Tiberius' parents thus divorced, and the rest of his life was entwined in the fortunes of his stepfather. Tiberius did deliver the funeral oration for his natural father in 33.

He received a superb education as well as every opportunity to embrace the political lifestyle. A marriage was arranged with Vipsania agrippina, daughter of Marcus agrippa, and Augustus began to entrust various military commands to him. In 20 b.c, he went to the East, where he restored Tigranes to the Armenian throne and received back the standards of Crassus that had been captured at Carrhae in 53. By 12 b.c, he was a general of Rome in pannonia, proving himself extremely able in war. Pannonia was his posting from 12-9 b.c, and he served in Germania from 9-7 B.C. Then, various events brought him great loss and embarrassment. In 9 b.c, his beloved brother, drusus (1) the Elder, died from an injury while on campaign in Germania. Tiberius walked in front of the body all the way back to Rome. Also, Augustus seemed to be choosing someone else as heir. Despite giving Tiberius the tribunician power, the emperor promoted his grandsons Gaius and Lucius. By 6 B.C. Tiberius found this so unbearable that he fled Rome for his private retreat at Rhodes. Another misfortune befell him in 12 b.c, when Augustus instructed him to divorce Agrippina and to marry his daughter julia. Tiberius loved Agrippina desperately, and his relationship with Julia deteriorated rapidly, contributing to his dark moods. Tragedies struck the imperial family in the next few years as Gaius and Lucius both died. Summoned back to Rome in 4 A.D., Tiberius was adopted by Augustus, granted tribunician power once more (for 10 years) and apparently chosen as the heir to the throne. That Augustus had qualms about him was obvious from the aging emperor's search for anyone else who might be suitable, and by the adoption of Agrippa Postumus, the surviving brother of Gaius and Lucius.

The revolt in Germania (4-6 A.D.) and the major uprising in Pannonia (6-9) demanded Tiberius's presence. When they had been suppressed, word arrived that the legate Quinctilius varus had been killed with his three legions, massacred in the teutoburg forest. Tiberius stabilized the Rhine region and then went back to Rome, where the task of running the government fell to him. As Agrippa Postumus was exiled to Planasia, Tiberius was the only logical choice for emperor when Augustus died in 14, as he held the IMPERIUM PROCONSULARE.

With the knowledge that Augustus had cared little for him, Tiberius began his own imperial era with disastrous debates in the senate as to the extent and nature of his powers. The legions in Pannonia and Germania revolted for better pay and improved conditions of service. Drusus, Tiberius' son, was sent to Pannonia while germanicus, son of Drusus the Elder and a respected figure in the Empire, was dispatched to the Rhine. The unrest was eventually ended, and Germanicus launched a retributive campaign against the Germans. While these operations were more successful from the persepective of propaganda than actual military gain, Tiberius gave Germanicus, whom he had adopted, a triumph. This celebration made tensions in the palace more severe, as the mob in Rome preferred Germanicus to the somber emperor. The popularity of Germanicus probably had something to do with his being given the imperium maius and sent to the East in 17.

The attempt to remove Germanicus from the public eye backfired badly, for in 19 he died suddenly in Antioch, after quarreling with the governor of Syria, Gnaeus Calpurnius piso. A hot issue erupted as Piso and his wife Plancina were suspected of poisoning Germanicus. agrippina the elder, the vocal widow, used the entire affair to hurl accusations at Tiberius and at his mother, Empress Livia. Ultimately Tiberius sacrificed his long-time supporter Piso but forever after hated the family of Germanicus, especially Agrippina the Elder.

As emperor, Tiberius proved faithful to his deified predecessor, declaring that the acts of Augustus were law. He certainly furthered the authority and the supremacy of the imperial house, but only after it became painfully clear that the Senate was incapable of wielding any true privileges or rights given to it. His mistrust of the senators, coupled with his search for a loyal aide, led him into the arms of SEJANUS, the PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD. Even during the rise and fall of this minister, Tiberius remained devoted to his imperial chores, running the provinces with a firm but surprisingly effective hand.

Much of his trouble stemmed from his inability to communicate effectively. Almost an unwilling ruler and difficult to understand, it was little wonder that he had no patience with the flattering sycophants of Rome. His reign began well in terms of justice and power, for he treated the Senate with respect and refused to allow any case of treason (maiestas). When one man was charged with impiety against the gods, he replied that the gods must defend their own good name. Moderation declined as the years passed and as the weight of office increased. Informers (delatores) invaded the legal system, as accusations against persons high and low initiated a wave of treason trials and deaths. The main instigator of this policy was Sejanus. Having worked his way into the emperor's trust, he convinced Tiberius that there were plots everywhere, using the resulting fear to widen his own influence. The prefectship of the Guard became a key administrative office, and the Guard was moved into the castra praetoria, a barracks in Rome. Tiberius put absolute faith in Sejanus, calling him his friend and assistant; because of him, in 26, he could leave Rome once and for all, taking up residence on Capri at the Villa Jovis.

Tiberius was happy to leave Livia behind as well. She had guided his path to the throne, using every means, including murder to some, to secure his accession. He hated her for it, and her constant interference in his rule made his leaving all the more desirable. Upon her death in 29 he was intent that the Senate should give her as few honors as possible; promising to build her arch himself, he never did it. Capri also allowed Tiberius to indulge himself, away from the prying eyes of the Romans. A man with peculiar tastes, he has been portrayed as an old, dirty, perverted debaucher by many, a view perhaps exaggerated. Nevertheless, he shared some of his adventures in pornography with gaius caligula, who was like in pursuits and appealed to Tiberius' own bitter sense of posterity. Knowing that history would judge him by comparison with his successor, Tiberius decided that Gaius Caligula, an obvious lunatic, would be perfect, inflicting at the same time lasting horrors upon the Romans. He thus enjoyed saying: "I am nursing a viper for the Roman people!"

As it turned out, Caligula was the only survivor of the entire reign who was available for the throne. One by one all other claimants died or were murdered. Germanicus died in 19, Drusus was probably poisoned by Sejanus in 23, and Germanicus' sons Drusus and Nero Caesar, the brothers of Caligula, were also arrested and done away with. Nero was exiled and died (like his mother) on a distant rock, and Drusus endured many years of misery in a Roman dungeon before succumbing. Sejanus tried to manuever himself into the inheritance but was lured to his doom in 31 in a plot masterminded by Tiberius, who was probably awakened to the threat by the Lady Antonia. That left only Gaius and his own grandson, Tiberius Gemellus. In his will he named both as heirs. Tiberius Gemellus did not survive long.

The last years of Tiberius, from 31 until 37, were characterized by reigns of terror, as anyone associated with Sejanus or anyone guilty of often imaginary crimes was executed. He died on March 16, 37, at the Villa of Lucullus in Misenum. The cause of death was probably natural, although some reported that he was smothered to death under a pillow by the Prefect Macro, on the orders of Gaius Caligula. His tyrannies, especially at the close of his reign, were closely scrutinized by Tacitus, who viewed him with the jaundiced eye of the age of domitian, an emperor who studied Tiberius for clues on how to rule. The historian Dio summed him up by saying that he possessed many virtues and many vices.

¤ TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO (d. 33 B.C.) Praetor in 42 b.c, the first husband of livia and the father of Emperor tiberius and drusus (1) the Elder. Tiberius Claudius Nero came from a good family, entering the service of Julius caesar at the siege of Alexandria. An ardent Republican, however, he proposed to the senate in 44 that Caesar's assassins be rewarded. In 43 or 42, he married Livia, daughter of the nobleman Marcus Livius Drusus Claudius, who bore him two sons, Tiberius in 42 and Drusus in 39. An opponent of Octavian (Augustus), Tiberius took part in the fighting in Italy in 40, raising an unsuccessful slave revolt in campania to undermine Octavian's position. Forced to flee the country, he took his wife and son to Sicily and then to Marc antony. According to the terms of the Treaty of Misenum in 39, he was able to return to Rome. This proved unfortunate, for Octavian fell in love with Livia. Tiberius soon divorced his wife and was so agreeable to the union that he gave the bride away three months before the birth of Drusus. The butt of many jokes in Rome, he nevertheless received from Octavian the right to raise his sons. He died in 33, his funeral oration delivered by the nine-year-old Tiberius, who was to become Augustus' heir to the throne.

¤ TIBERIUS JULIUS ALEXANDER (fl. 1st century a. d. ) One of the most successful Jews in Roman imperial history, born in Alexandria to wealthy Jewish parents; the nephew of philo. A fallen-away Jew, Tiberius rose far in the ranks of Roman government, becoming a member of the Equestrians (equites). Procurator of judaea from around 46-48 A.D., he helped to exterminate local dissidents, including the sons of Judas the Galilean. Promoted to the staff of General Corbulo in Armenia in 63, he was made prefect of Egypt in 66, Emperor nero apparently relying upon his Jewish background and knowledge of the East. This experience was soon tested, for Alexandria was the scene of considerable unrest in 66. So violent did the rioting become that the prefect called in two legions, and over 50,000 people died. Of note was his (extant) edict discussing the provincial government, published under Galba. Tiberius Julius Alexander was a supporter of vespasian and used his position as prefect of Egypt to convince the troops there and in the Eastern provinces to support the Flavian cause. On July 1, 69, he administered to his own troops the oath of allegiance for Vespasian. Subsequently he aided titus in his campaign against the Jews and was present in 70 at the siege of Jerusalem. Unsuccessfully, he tried to have the Great temple of Jerusalem saved from destruction. Despite this disagreement on policy, he was given command of the Praetorian Guard, the climax of his career.

¤ TIBULLUS, ALBIUS (c. 54-19 B.C.) An elegiac poet of the Augustan Age who was a follower of the Alexandrine School but expressed himself with (as Quintilian wrote) dry elegance. Of obscure but wealthy descent, he apparently suffered as a result of the civil wars, especially in the land seizures and the redistributions of 41. Tibullus became a client of the political figure Messalla Messallinus, a patronage that reversed his financial decline. Entering Messalla's literary circle he was soon a friend of Horace and an associate of ovid. He probably accompained Messalla on his trip to Asia, falling ill at Corcyra. He may have been part of the retinue of Messalla during his Gallic pro- consulship in 27 as well, recording his patron's victory over the Aquitani. The output of Tibullus centered mainly on elegies and panegyrics. There are two elegies to his mistress Delia and to the homosexual Marathus, and six on Nemesis - all organized into two books. A third book contains earlier poems by Tibullus, as well as six elegies, supposedly by the pen of the virtualy unknown poet Lygdamus, and six more to the woman writer Sulpicia. Thus the collection of poems from the circle of Messalla were added to the poet's authentic works. He also authored panegyrics to his patron, ending with an epigram and an elegy.

¤ TIGELLINUS, GAIUS OFONIUS (d. 68 A.D.) Prefect of the praetorian guard from 62 to 68 and the most infamous servant of Emperor nero. Although detailed information about him has not survived, Tigellinus was bom to a poor family, working his way into the services of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Marcus Vinicius, probably by having affairs with their wives, agrippina the younger and Livilla, gaius caligula's sister. He was exiled to Achaea, where he sold fish for a time in order to survive. He eventually returned to claim an inheritance from a forged will, successful in the venture because of Agrippina. Living in Apulia, he then became a horse trainer, and in this capacity met Nero.

Ingratiating himself with the young emperor, Tigellinus was named commander of the vigiles upon the death of Annaeus Serenus. Thus in 62, when the Praetorian Prefect Burrus died, Nero turned to Tigellinus to be his replacement. Knowing that such a choice would be opposed, given Tigellinus' lack of morality or qualifications, Nero appointed as well the respected Faenius rufus. True power in the Praetorians rested with Tigellinus, who shared in Nero's debaucheries. Through the use of informers and agents the prefect spun a web of terror around Rome, exposing treasonous activities and destroying the opponents of Nero. His value to the emperor increased by his ruthless extirpation of the pisonian conspiracy in 65. This investigation and subsequent massacre netted as well the other prefect, Rufus, who had been a member of the plot. Tigellinus was now the second most important figure in the Empire. But even his spies could not prevent wholesale discontent in the provinces and in Rome, and in 68 he fell ill. His co-prefect, the quiet but ambitious Nymphidius sabinus, assumed most of his duties, and Tigellinus distanced himself as much as possible from Nero and past events.

When Galba came to the throne late in 68, Tigellinus was relieved as prefect, while the mob cried for his death. But Titus vinius, an advisor to Galba, protected Tigellinus, repaying him for saving his daughter some years before. otho, Galba's swift successor, sought to appease the Romans and so ordered Tigellinus to die. Upon receiving the death sentence at the spas of Sinuessa in Latium-Campania, he enjoyed the favors of prostitutes and then slit his throat with a razor. The historian tacitus accorded him particularly vicious treatment in both his Annals and the Histories.

¤ TIGRANES I (d.c. 56 B.C.) "The Great," king of armenia from c. 90 to 56 b.c; secured improvements in his country through personal ambition and an alliance with Mithridates of Pontus. He helped finish off the Seleucids in syria, assuming mastery over a vast region, from the Euphrates to Antioch. His expansionism brought him into conflict with Rome, first with Lucullus in 69 and then with pompey the great in 66, when he was defeated. Tigranes submitted to Pompey and was allowed to retain his domain as a client to Rome. He died sometime around 56. His importance in terms of imperial history was his act of bringing the Romans to Armenia and hence into conflict with parthia. He was also the grandfather of Tigranes III.

¤ TIGRANES II (d. 6 B.C.) King of Armenia; the son of King artavasdes i and ruler from around 20 to 6 B.C. Captured in 34 when Marc antony overran Armenia, he was taken to Rome, where he spent several years as a hostage while his brother Artaxes regained the throne and ran the country with a cruel and despotic hand. A pro-Roman element in the palace called for Augustus to send Tigranes back to Armenia as a replacement. In anticipation of the arrival of Tiberius with an army in 20 b.c, the courtiers murdered Artaxes. Tigranes was crowned with the royal diadem by tiberius and remained as ruler until his death, leaving Armenia to a chaotic situation with erato and tigranes hi.

¤ TIGRANES IV (d. 36 A.D.) King of Armenia, briefly reigned c. 6-8; he was probably a grandson of herod the great through Alexander and his wife Glaphyra, daughter of Archelaus, king of cappadocia. One of Archelaus' wives was probably connected to the Armenian royal line, thus qualifying Tigranes, perhaps obliquely, for the succession. He was clearly not the first choice of Emperor Augustus (that had been Gaius Caesar's Mede, Ariobarzanus), but he had died, as had his heir, Artavasdes. Tigranes was unable to hold the traditionally factious Armenian court in check and found himself deposed. Living in Rome, he was accused in 36 of some crime and put to death by Tiberius. The historian tacitus recorded his demise, but did not include him in the list of Armenian kings.

¤ TIGRANES V (fl. 1st century A.D.) King of Armenia from 60-62 A.D. Following the successful operations of General Corbulo (2) in Armenia against the deposed monarch tiridates, nero decided to return to the previously disastrous system of placing client kings on the Armenian throne. His choice was Tigranes, nephew of tigranes iv, great-grandson of herod the Great and Archelaus of Cappadocia. Tigranes V was taken to his city and installed there by Corbulo, who left a legionary detachment of 1,000 men at tigranocerta, with auxiliaries and cavalry. The new king possessed little influence over his subjects. Perhaps driven by desperation to achieve some kind of success, he launched an attack on the Parthian client state of Adiabene. It is unclear whether Nero or Corbulo gave approval, but the campaign set off a wider conflict as Vologases, king of parthia, invaded Armenia, besieging Tigranes at his capital. Through the threat of Roman countermeasures, the Parthians were convinced to withdraw from Armenia. Tigranes had suffered an irretrievable blow and fell from power in 62. Nero had to recognize the claims of Tiridates.

¤ TIGRANOCERTA One of the capitals of Armenia (with artaxata); founded by King tigranes i to serve as the center for imperial expansion in the early 1st century B.C. It may have been situated just north of Nisibis and east of Edessa in a valley between the mountains of Masius and Niphates. Because of the position of Tigranocerta relative to parthia and Mesopotamia, it was susceptible to attack, and it fell to the Roman generals Lucullus in 69 B.C. and Corbulo in 60 A.D. That it was both large and powerful was seen in 61-62 A.D., when Vologases unsuccessfully besieged tigranes v there. The city was rebuilt in the late 4th or early 5th century A.D. as Martyropolis.

¤ TIGRIS One of the major rivers of the ancient world and, with its companion to the west, the Euphrates, an important element in the development of Mesopotamia. The Tigris, which formed Mesopotamia's eastern border, flowed out of Armenia into Assyria and then down through Babylonia until it reached the Persian Gulf. Like the Euphrates, with which it converges as it nears the Gulf, the Tigris was a political dividing line in the Parthian and Persian empires. Numerous cities were situated either on or near it, including Nisibis, Hatra, Apamea and one of the Parthian capitals, Ctesiphon. Roman campaigns into Mesopotamia always took the Tigris into strategic account. Thus, when trajan invaded Parthia in 115 A.D., he passed down the river, captured Ctesiphon and continued marching until he reached the Gulf. Such use of the Tigris was meant to define it as the easternmost region of the Roman Empire; such occupation was shortlived, as hadrian soon reestablished the traditional frontier. The Tigris was part of the economy of the East, as caravans stopped along its banks and shipping, to a small degree, could pass northward for some distance into Babylonia.

¤ TIMESITHEUS, GAIUS FURIUS SABINUS AQUILA (d. 243 A.D.) Prefect of the praetorian guard from 241 to 243 and the leading minister in the reign of Emperor Gordian III. Timesitheus was the foremost administrator in the Roman Empire, whose Equestrian (equites) career had been a series of important provincial postings. He was especially adept at finances, with procuratorships in Gallia Belgica, Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Germania Inferior, Bithynia, Pontus, Paphlagonia, Gallia Aquitania and Gallia Lugdunensis. Thus, in 241, when Gordian III was looking for a responsible imperial officer to serve as prefect of the Guard, the choice was obvious. From the start Timesitheus proved more than equal to the task, assuming the operation of the entire government with Gordian's support, demonstrated in the emperor's marriage to his daughter, tranquillina. Unlike other prefects in similar circumstances, Timesitheus was not ambitious for the throne. After working to improve the frontier defenses of Africa, including probably the construction of limes, the prefect began to organize a war with Persia. He served as general in 243, inflicting defeats on shapur i in Syria and Mesopotamia, including the capture of Nisibis. Further campaigns were planned, but the prefect sudenly fell ill and died. Gordian named philip i (the Arab) as the new Praetorian prefect, a man of much greater political ambition.

¤ TINGIS (Tangiers) City in mauretania just below the fretum gaditanum, or the Strait of Gibraltar. Tingis was said to have been founded by Phoenician traders and was thus very old by the time its inhabitants chose to support Octavian (Augustus) in the civil wars of Rome. For their loyalty, they were given Roman franchise before being attached to Hispania Baetica for provincial administration. To aid in Romanization, however, veterans were sent there as colonists. Under Claudius, Tingis was transferred from Baetica to Mauretania where it became the capital of Mauretania Tingitana, with the full title of colonia. Little has survived of the original site, making it archaeologically limited in value.

¤ TIRIDATES (fl. 1st century A.D.) An unsuccessful claimant to the Parthian throne in 35-36 A.D. Certainly a member of the arsacid dynasty and probably a grandson of phraates iv, who had sent his sons to Rome during the reign of Augustus (27 B.C.-14 A.D.). Tiridates was chosen by tiberius as a reliable Roman candidate for Parthian kingship and was sent as a rival to artabanus hi. When Artabanus was compelled to flee Parthia for Scythia, Tiridates was convinced that the moment was right for his own advance, and by 36 he was crowned at Ctesiphon. He listened to the counsel of the courtier abdagaeses, however, refusing to march to the various Parthian provinces and clients to win their fealty. Artabanus soon recovered, organized an army and expelled Tiridates, who had no stomach for war.

¤ TIRIDATES OF ARMENIA (fl. mid-lst century A.D.) King from around 51-60 and from 63. The son of the Parthian King Vonones and brother of vologases I and pacorus, Tiridates and Pacorus both agreed to the accession of Vologases in 51, presumably in return for their own kingdoms. Pacorus received Media Atropatene and Tiridates took Armenia. Following the murder of mithridates by radamistus in 51 and the latter's seizure of Armenia, Vologases decided that the country was ripe for retaking. Parthian troops swept into Armenia, capturing both Artaxata and Tigranocerta. Radamistus departed hur- riedly, only to return a year later, when disease and a vicious winter forced first the Parthians and then Tiridates himself to leave Armenia. Radamistus could not keep his throne, however, and Tiridates, backed by Vologases, was soon back and stayed until 60.

When nero came to power, he was eager to establish policy with vigor wholly wanting in Claudius. Foreign (Parthian) occupation of Armenia was not to be tolerated in his view, and he dispatched General corbulo (2) to the East in 55. Two years passed quietly as Corbulo made his preparations. In late 57, he entered Armenia and in 58, in conjunction with Roman clients in the region, he reduced Tiridates' position. The king opened negotiations but when these failed, Corbulo took and utterly destroyed Artaxata. The following year saw the fall of Tigranocerta, and in 60 Tiridates made a final, unsuccessful attack to reclaim his throne. From 60-62, tigranes v ran the Armenians with increasing impotence. An incursion of his into Adiabene allowed Vologases to return to Armenia. Tigranes fell, departing from the scene and allowing Tiridates to declare to Corbulo in 63 that he was willing to accept the diadem of rule from Nero, if need be. Thus, in 66 Tiridates journeyed to Rome, where he was treated with respect and honored with massive festivities. Relations were subsequently so calm that Nero gave him millions of sesterces and artisans to rebuild Artaxata, now renamed Neroneia (or Neronia).

¤ TIRIDATES II (fl. 1st century B.C.) Parthian usurper (c. 30-25 B.C.) who tried unsuccessfully to unseat phraates iv as king of Parthia. He may have been an officer in the army used to repulse Marc Antony's invasions in 36 and may then have tried to fulfill his own ambitions, ousting Phraates in 31 but proving unable to hold the throne. He was forced to flee to Octavian (Augustus) in 30, receiving sanctuary but no supplies or logistical support. In dealing with Parthia, Augustus came to look upon Tiridates as a useful tool in forcing Phraates to the bargaining table. Tiridates made another attempt at rule, but was beaten again in 26. Running to Augustus he brought with him Phraates, the king's son. Demands that both be surrendered to Parthian justice were made, and Augustus partially obliged, returning the prince to his father. Tiridates remained in syria, although his ambitions were ended when a peace treaty was signed in 20.

¤ TIRIDATES III (d. 318 or 330 A.D.) King of Armenia (c. 287-318 or 330 A.D.) and the first Christian king of that country. He was taken as a child to the Roman provinces when Armenia was overrun by shapur i around 252. Subsequently raised by the Romans, he took part in the campaigns against the goths of Probus before being restored to the throne of Armenia in 287. Another Persian onslaught (c. 296), led by Narses, ousted him briefly until 298, when Emperor galerius defeated the Persians. In 301, Gregory the Illuminator (Gregory of Armenia) appeared at his court performing miracles. Tiridates was immediately converted, transforming Armenia into a Christian domain. He was murdered either in 318 or 330.

¤ TIRO, MARCUS TULLIUS (fl. mid-lst century B.C.) Freedman and close friend of cicero. Tiro lived for many years after the death of Cicero, working hard in that time to preserve his friend's good name while developing his own literary reputation. Originally a slave in Cicero's household, Tiro was given his freedom in 54 B.C. and henceforth was indispensable to his former master, reading and preparing Cicero's multitudinous manuscripts. After the murder of Cicero in 43, Tiro was the editor of his collected orations and letters, as well as the author of a biography on him. The freedman authored his own poetry, a grammatical work and the notae Tironianae, an early version of shorthand, using abbreviations.

¤ TITIANA, FLAVIA (fl. late 2nd century A.D.) Wife of Emperor pertinax and daughter of Flavius sulpicianus, the prefect of the city during the auctioning of the Roman Empire in 193. Flavia Titiana was reportedly adulterous, carrying on, for example, with a lute player. The historian Dio called her an unchaste consort. This was probably why the newly elevated emperor rufused in 193 to give her the title of augusta. Curiously, coinage and inscriptions show her with that rank.

¤ TITIUS, MARCUS (1st century B.C.) Son of one of the victims of the triumviral proscriptions (see triumvirate, second), who was noted for the trapping and execution of Sextus pompey in 36 B.C. After the murder of his father (c. 40), Titius fled from Italy to gallia narbonensis, where he organized a band of ships and followers. Captured by the Sextian officer, menas, Titius was spared because his men carried on their shields the name of Sextus. Eventually deserting Sextus for Marc antony, Titius was charged with the task of hunting down the pirate in 36, after the battle of naulochus. Sextus was found and put to death. Titius became a legate in the service of Antony but, with Plancus, departed in 32 for the party of Octavian (Augustus). Prior to the battle of Actium (31 b.c), Titius commanded cavalry with Statilius taurus, defeating Antony's horsemen and convincing Philadelphus, king of Paphlagonia, to join Octavian. Titius was later a trusted officer in the regime of Augustus, holding the post of governor of syria (c. 10-9 b.c). His action in the death of Sextus Pompey was never forgiven by the Romans, and a mob once chased him out of a theater.

TITUS (41-81 A.D.) Emperor from 79-81 and the brother of his successor, domitian. According to the historian suetonius, Titus was feared and hated at the time of his accession but soon earned the loyalty and devotion of Rome through his goodness and sound rule. He was born on December 30, 41, in a slum section of Rome, the first son of vespasian and Flavia Domitilla. Because of his father he was educated in the palace of Emperor Claudius and later in that of nero, becoming the closest of friends with britannicus, Claudius' son. It was said that when Nero killed the prince with poison, Titus was reclining at the same table and actually drank some of the fatal brew, suffering severe illness as a result.

Having survived the court, Titus embarked upon a successful military career. A tribune in Britain and Germany, he was made a quaestor in 65 and two years later a legate in command of a legion in Palestine, under the supervision of his father. The young general proved quite able in the suppression of the Jewish uprising. Josephus recorded that he tried, when possible, to avoid destruction and bloodshed. Vespasian sent his son on a trip to Rome to congratulate Galba on his accession, but when Titus reached Corinth he heard of the new emperor's assassination in January 69 and returned to judaea. Vespasian was soon persuaded by his son and fellow officers in the East to march on Rome and seize the throne. The completion of the Jewish War was left to Titus, who showed great strategic sense and energy over the next year, culminating in the capture and destruction of Jerusalem and its great temple. Sources are at odds as to Titus' willingness to see the temple demolished, but, guilty or innocent, it was an act that earned him eternal condemnation and had a major influence on Jewish history.

With Judaea pacified and his father now emperor, Titus hurried home in 71, thus dispelling rumors that his excessive cultivation of praise following his triumph pointed to other ambitions. Vespasian heaped further honors upon him, making it clear whom he desired for his heir. Titus became his colleague, sharing his powers in every sense and even acting as the head of government in his father's name. As consul seven times and as prefect of the praetorian guard, he earned a reputation for ruthlessness, tyranny and political violence. Added to this was the habit of throwing lavish parties for his friends and an affair with Berenice, a Jewish princess.

When Vespasian died in 79, the Romans were afraid that Titus' joke would come true. He claimed that to pay for the financial needs of the state he would have to be a second Nero. Roman anxiety was soon calmed and replaced by admiration, for Titus as emperor offered no faults for criticism. At every opportunity he gave public displays of his good nature. Gladiatorial games were held with other amusements to keep the Roman mobs happy in the face of stern but necessary economic policies. The highlight of his reign came with the opening of the colosseum, known then as the Amphitheatrum Flavium. With the shows held there and the pogrom launched against informers, Titus' time on the throne was remembered as stable, in spite of numerous, normally ominous natural disasters. Mount Vesuvius erupted in 79, burying pompeii, Stabiae and herculaneum. Titus hurried south to campania, only to have a fire break out in Rome the next year. In the wake of the fire a plague descended upon Italy, one of the worst on record. Each calamity was met with concern and generous remedial action. After uttering that the fire "has ruined me," he sold or stripped imperial estates to hasten the recovery.

What would have happened in following years was never known, for Titus was dead on September 1, 81. He cried while at the games, for an unknown reason, took ill and succumbed in the same house where Vespasian died only two years before. Titus' last words were that he was bitter about dying because he had only one terrible sin on his conscience; the nature of that offense was never known. Mourning was widespread and sincere, increasing over the next few months as the Romans came to know their new Emperor domitian. Suetonius admired Titus, describing him as graceful and dignified but not tall and having a paunch. His memory was superb, he read Greek and Latin and could play music.

TIVOLI Town about 15 miles from Rome, on one of the oldest inhabitated sites in Italy (see latium); also, the grandest villa ever constructed. Tivoli (also known as Tibur) is where Emperor hadrian constructed his huge villa complex of the same name in the 2nd century A.D.

The town was situated on a hill to give it a commanding view of the nearby countryside. Flowing nearby was the Anio River, forming a waterfall. The city came under Roman rule in 338 B.C. and was subsequently developed as a retreat from Rome for the upper classes. It was the beauty of Tibur and its relative proximity to Rome that drew Hadrian there. Nobles and notables took up residence as well, and Horace had a small house in Tibur. Emperor aurelian even decided that Queen zenobia, whom he de- feated in 271 A.D., should reside there in relative comfort.

An emperor of considerable ambition and vision, Hadrian took one of the hills near Tibur and transformed it, between 118 and 134, into his own sumptuous retreat, a masterpiece of art and architecture. It may originally have been a villa owned by Empress Sabina, but by the time Hadrian was finished there was no similarity to the older, Republican-style villa. Indeed, Tivoli was the physical manisfestation of Hadrian's great love for Hellenism. Throughout Tivoli could be found Greek references in statuary, mosaics and design. Where Greek influence was not obvious, other nations contributed, such as Egypt (specifically, Alexandria) with an imitation of its Serapeum.

Arguably the most beautiful place in the villa was the isolated Island Villa, a moated series of rooms and suites, with bedrooms, a dining hall and full facilities, including a bath. It was accessible by bridges but never lost its sense of quiet seclusion, with its white columns and continual breezes. Nearby was the so-called Poicile, or peristyle courtyard. It was designed most likely along the lines of the Greek dromos or exercise area so common in that country. There were columns along the entire perimeter and rooms at one end for the staff. Situated, no doubt, just below were the private imperial suites where Hadrian acutally slept while visiting. Part of this section had a hippodrome, similar to the one found in Domitian's Domus Flavia, although this track was far more impressive.

Hadrian ordered that two baths be built, the small and the large. The smaller baths were perhaps for his own use, displaying niceties in design that seemed to reflect the personal imperial touches. Such were wholly absent in the larger baths, just to the south. These were more conventional. To the east could be found the Piazza d'Oro, another peristyle court topped with an unusual, eight-sided vault. Here again, with columns arranged in the fashion of a stoa, could be seen Hadrian's fascination with Hellenic style.

To the west of the piazza was a series of structures that were slightly removed from the main complex. The Serapeum, modeled on the Alexandrian shrine, was a half-dome, decorated with glass and built into the hillside. Stretching from it was the Canopus, a small canal-like pool surrounded by statues with Grecian motifs (Amazons, for example). Also belonging to Tivoli were an Academy and a temple to Venus. Hadrian, according to Spartianus, gave names to parts of the villa as he thought appropriate, with references to parts of the Empire. He had an Academy, Canopus, Tempe, Poicile and Lyceum. There was even a Hades, or an entrance to the land of the dead.

TOGA Article of clothing worn by the Romans and a distinctive and famous fashion. Allowed only to Romans, the toga became synonymous with the culture and society of Rome. It developed, as well, its own precise uses, official purposes and popular nuances.

Togas were an ancient form of dress, dating far back into Roman history. Before the creation of the sagum, or military uniform, the toga was worn into battle. As Rome grew as a military power, the garment found expression as a symbol of peace. Essentially, a toga was a white woolen cloth, cut into a semicircular design of approximately five yards long, four yards wide, varying upon the size of the wearer. A part of it was pressed into plaits and doubled lengthwise so that one of the folds (called the sinus) would wrap comfortably around the hip and chest while allowing room enough to walk or move. The left shoulder was covered and the right shoulder remained free, although by design, the right shoulder and head could be covered for ceremonies, usually by pulling up the sinus.

There were special ways of wearing the toga, just as there were special togas. For sacrifices and certain religious ceremonies the cindus Gabinus was arranged. Named after the town of Gabii, the Gabian toga had the sinus drawn over the head but the portion draped over the left shoulder was drawn around the body instead, to form a girdle by tucking it around the waist. In this way both arms were free. Over time, the cinctus Gabinus appeared only at religious observances, such as the opening of the Temple of Janus, sacrifices or the groundbreaking for a new town.

Men wore the so-called toga virilis, also known as the toga pura or common toga. Often the wool that was used was made whiter by applying chalk. Such treated togas were named toga Candida and were found worn by candidates seeking office. Dark-colored togas, the toga pulla or toga sordida, were worn by the lower classes or by others in time of mourning or when under severe stress, as at a trial.

The toga pratexta was a toga with a distinctive purple stripe woven into the fabric, probably along the sinus. In the Republic it was the emblem of the curule magistrates, censors, dictators and priests (when performing their religious duties). Later it was adopted by the emperors. Children wore the toga praetexta: boys until they reached manhood and received the toga virilis; girls until marriage, when they took the stola or matron's dress. Prostitiutes and disgraced wives always wore the toga.

Finally, there was the toga picta or ornate toga. This was a toga decorated with a red stripe and gold embroidery. Generals were adorned with it for triumphs, and consuls wore it upon entering office, as did magistrates when giving public games. The emperors, not surprisingly, took to wearing it themselves and with them it remained. See also dictator; festivals; ludi; patrician; plebeians; religion; SENATE.

¤ TRACHALUS, P. GALERIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) consul in 68, with Silus Italicus, and an advocatus and rhetor of high repute. Quintilian wrote of him that he had the finest voice and delivery that he had ever heard. Trachalus was a minor player in the events of 69 A.D., when he acted as political advisor to otho, possibly writing some of his speeches. Although an obvious confidant of Otho, Trachalus was not attacked in the brief reign of vitellius. His sister Galeria was married to Vitellius.

Within The Roman Empire

Province	Contribution to Commerce

Achaea	Major: olives Minor: wine
Africa	Major: olives; corn; cereal; fruits Minor: textiles
Arabia	Major: trade routes from East to West
Asia	Major: trade routes from East to West; cloth Minor: olives and corn
Bithynia	Major: trade routes from East to West Minor: agriculture; timber; iron
Britannia	Major: gold; iron; silver; tin Minor: agriculture and livestock
Cappadocia	Major: horses and livestock Minor: cereal and fruit
Cilicia	Major: timber Minor: wheat; olives; fruit; wine
Cyprus	Major: copper
Crete and Cyrenaica	Major: agriculture
Dacia	Major: gold and silver
Egypt	Major: corn and grain Minor: trade routes from East to West
Galatia	Major: none Minor: none
Gallia (Tres Galliae)	Major: pottery; glassmaking; metallurgy; woodcraft; textiles Minor: wheat; olives; fruits; corn; oil; wine; cheeses; ham
Germania (Germany)	Major: none Minor: none
Hispania (Spain)	Major: gold; silver; copper; tin; lead Minor: wheat; olives; oil; fruits; wine; livestock
Illyricum	Major: trade routes along the Danube
Italia (Italy)	Major: metallurgy; pottery; weapons Minor: olives
Lycia and Pamphylia	Major: timber Minor: corn
Macedonia	Major: mining and timber Minor: trade routes from East to West; agriculture; livestock
Mauretania	Major: olives and fruits Minor: marble; wine; livestock
Moesia	Major: trade along the Danube and Black Sea Minor: agriculture and mining
Noricum	Major: mining; iron
Numidia	Major: corn and grains Minor: wine and livestock
Pannonia	Major: mining; iron; silver Minor: wild bison and boars
Raetia	Minor: agriculture
Sardinia	Major: corn and salt Minor: iron and silver
Sicilia (Sicily)	Major: wheat; corn; fruits; almonds Minor: wine
Syria	Major: trade routes from East to West Minor: grain; fruits; cloth; glass-making; dyes
Thrace	Major: trade along the Danube and Black Sea Minor: agriculture and mining

Outside The Empire

State	Contribution to Commerce

African	kingdoms slaves
Bosporous, Kingdom of China	grain; fish; hides; hemp; silk; incense; jewelry; perfumes; spices
India	spices; gems; ivory; perfumes; cotton; jewelry; incense; exotic animals
Parthian Empire	minor trade goods and caravan routes to the East and West
Persian Empire	minor trade goods and caravan routes to the East and West

See also under individual provinces for details on the industry and trade for each territory.

¤ TRAJAN (Marcus Ulpius Tmianus) (c. 53-117 A.D.) Emperor from 98-117 and the most militarily ambitious ruler the Roman Empire would ever know. The reign of Trajan was filled with some of the largest wars in Rome's history and characterized by the aggrandizement of Rome and its Empire. Unfortunately, these events were recorded in scant detail, for literary sources on Trajan did not survive, except for the account of the historian Dio. Only through coinage of the era, correspondence with pliny and Pliny's panegyric, and the grand arch of Trajan can evidence be found.

Trajan was born to a family originally from Umbria but settled in Hispania Baetica. His father, of the same name, was a successful senator, consul and governor of Asia and syria; his mother was Marcia, otherwise unknown. With the status of his father as a useful base, Trajan embarked upon his own career. A tribune with his parent while his father was governor of Syria, by the late 80s he was a legate in charge of a legion in Hispania Tarraconensis, the VII Gemina. In 89, in response to the summons of domitian, Trajan marched his cohorts toward Germania Superior, where Apronius saturninus had rebelled. Although he arrived too late to participate in Saturninus' demise, the emperor was nevertheless grateful; in 91, Trajan held a consulship. Nerva apparently appointed him the governor of Germania Superior in 96, and then, after the praetorian guard humiliated the emperor, Trajan was suddenly adopted.

His adoption by the emperor probably stemmed from his military reputation, support from the senate and the real popularity that he enjoyed with the troops of the legions. Quite possibly Trajan and his allies in Rome applied enough pressure on the aged emperor to have him named as heir. Nerva died in 98, and Trajan was informed at Cologne by the young Hadrian that he now ruled the Roman world. To demonstrate that the throne was his and to teach a lesson as to its rights, he summoned Casperius Aelianus, prefect of the praetorian guard, along with the leaders of the group that had shamed Nerva. They were put to death, and Trajan entered Rome in pomp, with his austere wife plotina.

What followed was virtually incessant warfare, as Trajan sought to extend the limits of the Empire in every direction. He began by finishing what he considered a previous failure; the unsatisfactory war with dacia and its gifted King decebalus. Where Emperor domitian had been unable to triumph, Trajan proved totally successful. In two massive campaigns (101-102 and 105-106) Dacia was defeated and Decebalus driven to suicide. When Dacia was declared an imperial province, it represented a major Roman inroad into the region north of the Danube. At the same time, Cornelius Palma led a Roman army into Arabia Pete, subduing the Nabataeans of Petra and reducing the economically wealthy kingdom to the status of a province. Back in Rome, Trajan celebrated his win over Dacia and devoted a number of years almost solely to running the Empire. As emperor he displayed a remarkable restraint in dealing with the Senate. He showed the body great respect while presenting himself as the ideal ruler. Dio wrote of him in glowing terms, describing his sense of justice, bravery and simplicity of habits. He envied no one, paid no attention to slander and was so beloved by the Senate and the people that he often went to homes without a guard.

This cultivated image of honesty and compassion was proven in more ways than by minor demonstrations or speeches. Trajan increased the congiarium or free distribution of food and took further steps to ensure that the grain supply was maintained. One of his finest creations in the field of public service was the alimenta or special subsidy paid to the poor of Italy. For the provinces he appointed governors who were reliable and could be trusted to deal honorably with the inhabitants. For those provinces or cities where finances were in a desperate state, such as Achaea and Athens, he sent the correctores or administrators. One of his governors in Bithynia was puny the younger. Military colonies were also established in those areas needing Romanization, especially in Germania and along the Danube, in moesia. Despite the reduction in taxes and his lengthy campaigns, Trajan found time and money to spend on public works in the Empire and in Rome. With the help of apollodorus of Damascus he built the Forum of Trajan (forum traiani), the Market of Trajan (trajan's market) and the Baths of Trajan. Roads were also repaired throughout the provinces.

Even as he made these popular gifts to the people, his thoughts were returning to war. Parthia was still a troubling enemy in the East and, much as he had done in Dacia, Trajan planned to do more than inflict a severe defeat upon them. Thus in 114, he invaded Armenia with a huge army. The country fell quickly, and in 115 he marched into Mesopotamia and captured the Parthian capitol of Ctesiphon. This acquisition made western Parthia Roman terriotry, and Trajan declared Mesopotamia part of the Empire. He soon discovered that conquest was easier than holding a region filled with minor kingdoms and hostile populations. When Mesopotamia rose in revolt, Roman authority was reinstated, but tenuously. Trajan tried to reduce the city of Hatra and was so exhausted by the siege that he fell ill shortly thereafter. Other bad news reached him. The Jews in Cyrenaica, Cyprus, Egypt and even in parts of judaea had risen in rebellion. Although suppressed, the uprising had left thousands of dead and entire parts of provinces in ruins.

Trajan departed the East in 117, tired and ill. In Cilicia he suffered some kind of stroke in early August and died. He had adopted Hadrian but may not have named him his successor. Whatever Trajan's views might have been is not known, for Plotina and the Praetorian Prefect Attianus made certain that Hadrian followed him to the throne. Hadrian did not believe in wars of expansion, viewing them as too costly, thus undoing by policy and by inactivity Trajan's life's work. Nevertheless, Trajan had accomplished much to make Rome proud again, and Hadrian, despite his differing viewpoint, was a worthy successor.

¤ TRAJAN'S MARKET Ingenious structure built by Emperor trajan sometime between 100 and 112 A.D.; located just above the forum traiani in Rome and designed by apollodorus of Damascus, the great architect in the service of the emperor. The Market of Trajan, called the mercatus Traiani was a very large structure covering the side of the Quirinal Hill. There were five levels of shops (tabernae) and offices, including those for Trajan's annona and alimenta, or bureau of loans and subsidies. Architecturally, the market was startlingly different from virtually every other building in the city. Apollodorus used a simple design, abstaining from the opulent facades of the time in favor of concrete and plain brick. It was topped with a vaulted hall and a concrete half-dome.

¤ TRANQUILLINA, FURIA SABINA (fl. 3rd century A.D.) Empress from 241 to 243 and the wife of Emperor gordian in. Tranquillina was the daughter of the Praetorian Prefect timesitheus. Her marriage to Gordian in 241 was an admission by the young emperor of both the political indispensability of her father and her own suitability as empress. In 243, she suffered the double loss of her husband and father. Her own fate is not recorded.

¤ TRAPEZUS Also known as Trabezun or Trabzon; a Cappadocian city on the south coast of the black sea. Probably founded circa 8 B.C. as a trading colony, Trapezus was a possession of the kingdom of pontus before falling into Roman hands. Subsequently, it had a major role in the development of the province of cappadocia. Trapezus was one of the connecting points between the Syrian frontier and the Black Sea, and was an important economic link for the seagoing commerce of the entire region. Trapezus replaced sinope as the leading port in the eastern Black Sea, was the homeport for the classis Pontica or Black Sea fleet of the Roman navy, and had a sizable garrison, hadrian constructed a new harbor by enclosing it between moles to provide protection from attack and the weather. Such measure could not prevent Trapezus from suffering terribly in the barbaric invasions of the mid-3rd century. During the reign of valerian and Gallienus, the city fell to the goths but was recaptured. After repairs were made, the dock reopened and Trapezus regained its wealth; the city still flourished in the reign of Eastern Emperor justinian in the 6th century A.D.

¤ TREBELLENUS, RUFUS (d. 21 A.D.) An ex-praetor who, in 19 A.D., was appointed by Emperor tiberius to act as a guardian to the children of cotys, after that king of thrace had been murdered by his uncle, rhescuporis. His administration of Thrace brought severe complaints from the inhabitants, including the charge that any crimes committed by Romans went unpunished. In 21, he was condemned in Rome and killed himself.

¤ TREBONIANUS GALLUS, GAIUS VIBIUS (c. 206-253 A.D.) Emperor from 251 to 253 A.D.; born to a family from Persia. After entering imperial service he held a consulship in 245 and the governorship of moesia in 250. He became one of the most important generals of Trajanus Decius, working with the emperor to repel the goths under their King Kniva. In 251, however, Decius was destroyed and slain at Abrittus by the Goths. Gallus received the blame for supposedly permitting the catastrophe but was proclaimed emperor by his troops anyway. He probably had nothing to do with Decius' defeat.

From the start the new emperor tried to placate the various political currents of the Roman Empire. A new treaty of peace was made with the Goths, designed to reward them for not violating the frontiers, a very unpopular admission of weakness. Freed from war, Gallus traveled to Rome, where the senate was honored and respect paid to Decius' remaining family members. The dead emperor's youngest son, Hostilianus, was made Augustus, and the widow, Etruscilla, retained her title of augusta.

Such attempts at unification failed because of the unremitting catastrophe that gripped the world during the brief years of Gallus' reign. The Goths returned in force, pouring over the borders and extending their marches all the way to Asia Minor, where they pillaged and burned its beautiful cities. In the East, the Persians under shapur i seized Armenia and then devastated Antioch and syria. To complicate things further, in 252, a horrible plague swept through the provinces, killing Hostilianus and debilitating the legions.

Gallus' response was to revive the persecutions of the Christians, pursued so actively by his predecessor. Begun in 253, the crises everywhere were too severe, and the legions put their trust in a new master, Marcus Aemilius aemilian, a general on the Danube. He defeated the Goths and was hailed by his own troops as their savior. Aemilian marched on Italy, and Gallus' men, avoiding a massacre, murdered Gallus to pave the way for a new man on the throne.

¤ TREBONIUS, GAIUS (d. 43 B.C.) Tribune of the Plebs in 55 B.C. and a minor player in the final years of the Republic. He began as a quaestor in 60, when he was a supporter of the aristocratic party, but found greater opportunity for advancement with the members of the First Triumvirate, Julius Caesar, Pompey The Great and Crassus. As tribune in 55, he authored the Lex Trebonia and aided both Pompey and Crassus with commands in Spain and the East (for Crassus). Crassus was soon destroyed at the battle of Carrhae by Parthia, and the triumvirate broke apart only a few years later. From 55 to 50, he was a legate in the service of Julius Caesar in the gallic wars. With the outbreak of the civil war (of the First Triumvirate) in 49, Trebonius joined the cause of Caesar. He conducted with great success the siege of Massilia and served as praetor urbanus in 48. The following year he replaced Q. Cassius Longinus as the pro-praetor of Spain, where he proved unable to prevent the Pomepians from reuniting. Nevertheless, Caesar rewarded his loyalty in 45 with a consulship and the promise of the post of governor of Asia. Trebonius repaid this by joining the plot to murder Caesar in 44, actually taking part in the assassination. He then departed Rome and took up his duties in Asia. In 43, he was surprised by the infamous dolabella, who killed him in his bed at Smyrna, later hurling his head at Caesar's statue. Trebonius was also noted for his collection of cicero's witty sayings and puns, published for his friend in 47.

¤ TREVERI Also, Treviri; a large tribe in Gallia Belgica, living to the east of the suessiones and close to the Rhine River. This proximity to the Germanic tribes made them, in the opinion of Julius caesar, the most German of the Gallic nations; they were also reported to be the bravest and most talented horsemen. Because of their fierce independence, the Treveri were difficult clients for Rome as they could be found in the thick of virtually every major revolt. But their factionalism was an aid to Rome, especially during the gallic wars. In 54 b.c, Caesar was able to avert a rebellion by supporting the chief Vercingetorix over Indutiomarus. Unfortunately, a revolt did occur in 53 but was quickly suppressed.

Under the occupation of Rome, the Treveri supplied levies of auxiliaries to serve in the legions but continued to take part in movements against the Romans. In 21 A.D., they joined Julius sacrovir but in 68 refused to back vindex in his attempt to begin a nationalistic Gallic revolution. As the rise of Vindex had helped Galba, the Treveri were punished for remaining loyal to nero. As a consequence, they received warmly the pro-VITELLIUS march of the Rhine legions on Rome and then cheered Julius classicus in his creation of the Imperiim Galliarum in 69. Subsequently of reduced importance, their chief town, Trevi or Treves, was taken by the Romans to serve as a leading city in Gallia Belgica—Augusta Trevirorum (Trier).

¤ TRIBUNE An important officer of the Roman state. Those tribunes who represented the plebeians were called the tribuni plebis or tribunes of the plebs, while in the legions there were the tribuni militum or military tribunes.

The tribunes of the Plebs were the elected, official representatives of the Plebeian class and acted as the champions and protectors of all Plebeians against any possible oppression by the patricians or the consuls. The tribunes were first organized in the early 5th century B.C., chosen by the comitia curiata and later by the comitia tributa, probably after 471 B.C. Originally two in number, they eventually became five and then (c. 457) 10. The position of the tribune relative to the Republic grew considerably as the Plebeians assumed greater power. While they were only magistrates in the 5th century b.c, so long as the oath taken to them by the Plebs remained intact, the aggrandizement of their office was both inevitable and desirable. By using their office, the tribunes kept in check competing officials of the Republic and came to a position where they could oppose anyone except the dictators.

By the 1st century B.C. it was widely recognized that the tribune of the Plebs was, within Rome, the most powerful position attainable. Although its rights and privileges, the Tribunicia Potestas, extended only to the city and its environs, there was a desire to wield it for political advantage, sulla (c. 80 B.C.) attempted to curtail the tribunes, but his limitations were revoked some 30 years later. With the civil war, the weight of the tribuneship passed into the hands of Julius caesar in 48 b.c, without any definite time limit and without any degree of restraint.

In Caesar was thus established the idea of a perpetual tribuneship. Augustus, beginning in 36 b.c, followed suit but for him the key was not so much the actual post but its real strength, the tribunicia potestas. The emperor took the potestas for himself, separate from the office, as part of his pledge to defend the people. His status in Rome was thus largely derived from the prerogatives of the potestas, which was marked each year by numerals. Actual tribunes continued to exist but shorn of their influences, elected by the senate. In order to make the weakened honor more appealing, Augustus made it a key step in the senatorial career of a Plebeian, mandatory before the praetorship. Tribunes continued to exist until the late 4th century A.D.

Originally key military personnel in the legions of the Republic, the military tribunes had a reduced role in the imperial legions. They were elected at first by the people, later in conjunction with the consuls. Six were assigned each year to each legion but, as most field or combat duties were handled by the centurions, the tribunes held posts of an administrative nature. This reality of legionary life was probably a reflection of the pool from which the tribunes were taken. Only very rarely was a centurion appointed to the tribuneship. Rather, most candidates came from the senatorial or Equestrain (equites) rank, were young and had already served as staff member or aide-decamp to a general or a commander-in-chief. Eager to embark upon a political career, they viewed the tribuneship as a necessary first step in their advancement to higher office.

All tribunes wore a toga with a broad or narrow purple stripe, depending upon their membership in the senatorial or Equestrian class, but all bore an Equestrian ring. From the time of Julius Caesar the tribunes ceased to enjoy the senior positions in the legions because of the rise of the legati or legates (see legatus), who ran the legions. During the imperial era this system was concretized; the tribunes did lead the legion on march, however, and still held commands of power in the auxilia. See also equites.

¤ TRIBUNICIA POTESTAS The powers of the tribuni Plebis, or tribunes of the plebeians. Tribunes were originally considered mere magistrates, elected by the Plebeians to defend them against the cruelties of the patricians or the consuls. They lacked any insignia of office and were not honored by the lictors. They did not have attendants (viatores.)

Very quickly, however, the tribunes amassed vast political powers, and the tribunicia potestas became the strongest protection from tyranny in the Roman Republic. According to the oath taken to them by the Plebeians, the tribuni plebis were made sacrosanct, free from persecution and prosecution in the fulfillment of their duties. They safeguarded all Plebeians (and later everybody) from excesses by the magistrates (excepting the dictators). The right to enact compulsory measures, including arrests, fines, imprisonment and even death, was their to use. Troops could be levied, tributum or taxes demanded, but appeals to these orders could also be made. Their privilege to veto certain enactments spread to allow them to curtail or even suspend activities of the senate.

Officially, any proposals made by the tribunes had to be approved by the Senate, but in time of crisis this legal technicality was ignored. The tribune was free to do this because of his immunity from prosecution. Changes in the law were also tolerated, and a place was provided for the tribunes in the Curia during proceedings of the Senate. From this bench, called the subsellia, the tribune used his auxilium to speak out in defense of his constituency, if he felt the need. This capacity to interfere in senatorial deliberations led to an actual seat in the body, a right to veto and, finally, the ability to summon the Senate.

It was not surprising that sulla, in 80 b.c, took steps to curtail the tribunicia potestas. But the tribunes survived Sulla's machinations and were successful in restoring their status. In caesar and Augustus they encounterd two more resilient manipulators. Augustus seized the tribunicia potestas, kept it forever as one of the keys to his omnipotence as princeps and then divorced it from the old tribuneship. Another important development was Augustus' granting to Marcus Vipsanius agrippa full authority to wield the potestas (c. 19-18 B.C.) in his name. The years of its being held were numbered so that dating was characterized by the inscriptions "trib. pot. II" or "trib. pot. III." Elevating someone to hold the tribunicia potestas was, in the imperial age, considered a clear indication of the decision of the emperor that this individual would succeed to the throne.

¤ TRIBUTE PENNY Nickname used to describe the poll tax (tributum capitis) paid by residents of the provinces to Rome, but especially the form of tributum collected from the inhabitants of judaea after provincialization in 6 A.D. Their tax, for many years one denarius, received the name tribute penny. See also coinage; taxation.

¤ TRIBUTUM The tax collected by the Roman imperial government from the inhabitants of the provinces. Under the Republic, taxes were normally paid as a fixed sum (stipendium) or a tithe (decumae). This system changed with the foundation of the Empire, for the use of the census made possible accurate estimates of the size of the population and hence the amount of tributum to be paid. While there were exceptions, most notably in colonies, in cities with the ius italicum and in Egypt, the two basic forms of imperial taxation were the poll tax (tributum capitis) and the land tax (tributum solis).

TRIER (Augusta Treverorum) Once the capital city of the Treveri but later developed into one of the leading cities of Gallia Belgica. Trier was situated on the Moselle River, just east of Germania Superior (modern Luxembourg). Also known as Treves, it came under direct Roman occupation probably in the reign of Augustus but most likely did not receive full status as a colonia (see colonies) until the time of Claudius. Strategically situated to serve as a gateway for the distribution of Gallic goods and services to the two provinces of Germania Inferior and Superior, Trier became noted in the 1st century A.D. for its cloth. Romanization was pronounced, and a school in the city taught Latin. Because of its wealth and Roman flavoring, Rome decided to move to Trier a part of the central administration from Gallia Belgica and the two Germanias. The finances of the provinces came under the control of a procurator who had his offices in Trier.

While the city eventually came to rival rheims, the capital of Gallia Belgica, it was not unitl the 3rd century A.D. and the reforms of diocletian that it became one of the foremost metropolises of the West. Emperor constantius i chlorus, named a Caesar in the tetrarchy, chose Trier as the center of operations for his portion of the Empire (Gallia, Hispania and Britannia).

Under Constantius and his son constantine, Trier was improved architecturally. Although the city already had some interesting structures dating to the 2nd century A.D. including the Baths of St. Barbara, a forum and an amphitheater, Constantius began work on the large basilica and imperial palace structure that occupied a good part of the eastern region of the city. Constantine completed these projects after 306, when he succeeded his father. He added his own touch with the sumptous imperial baths, perhaps used only by the court. To this period also belongs the Porta Nigra, the famous gates of Trier.

¤ TRIO, FULCINIUS (d. 35 A.D.) One of the most disliked delatores (informers) during the reign of tiberius (14-37 A.D.); first gained prominence as an accuser of libo in 16 A.D. and then as a leading attacker on Gnaeus Calpurnius piso in 19. After the suicide of Piso, Trio was promised public office but was not made consul until 31, probably to allay the suspicions of the Praetorian Prefect sejanus, who was his political patron. Trio's colleague was the more reliable P. Memmius Regulus who subsequently helped to destroy the ambitious Sejanus. Despite being a known client of Sejanus, Trio evaded death in 31 by be-

coming a leading accuser of the fallen prefect's supporters. He complained about Regulus, claiming that he did not pursue the friends of Sejanus with enough vigor. In 35, Trio committed suicide, knowing that Tiberius would inevitably have him put to death.

¤ TRIPOLITANIA The eastern portion of the province of Africa; also called Tripolitana and Syrtica Regio, after the two branches of the Syrtes River that cut through the region. This was actually a very narrow strip of territory between the coast and the domain of the hostile Garamantes and the hot Sahara. Although fertile lands was hard to find, development in Tripolitania was considerable, with three main cities: Lepcis Magna, Oea (Tripoli) and Sabratha.

¤ TRIUMPH Ancient celebration in Rome that gave honor to a victorious general; the highest honor attainable for an officer in the legions of the Republic, it could be won on land or sea, so long as certain requirements were met by the victor. Throughout the Republic there were precise demands that had to be fulfilled. The battle celebrated had to be won under the auspices of the general, not his lieutenants; thus an underling who won would not be entitled to a triumph, but his superior would, even though the I junior commander had clearly made the victory. Thousands of the enemy had to be killed in the battle, with only minor losses to the Romans, and the battle had to be a legitimate one, not the result of a civil struggle. Peace had to follow the battle, and only high magistrates were allowed to be so honored.

During the Late Republic these rules were broken. For example, pompey the great triumphed in 81 B.C. despite having held no major office and being only 24. Julius cae-sar's triumphs after the civil wars in the provinces (but not Pharsalus) were greeted with a sense of distaste. Caesar was typical, however, of the deteriorated Republic, for he celebrated his triumphs as a personal possession. From the founding of the Empire by Augustus, only the emperors themselves received a triumph. The reason for this, officially, was that the legates (legati Augusti pro praetore) were viewed simply as the underlings of the emperor. They were not given triumphs, as the auspices were with their masters. Instead, the legati were recipients of the ornamenta triumphalia. The last known general to triumph, who was not a member of the imperial family, was Cornelius balbus (2) in 21 B.C.

According to custom, the general who laid claim to a triumph did not enter the city upon returning to Rome but gave his report to the senate in the Temple of Bellona. If it was satisfactory, a date was set for his jubilant entrance. The procession, strewn with flowers, began at the campus martius, went through the Porta Triumphalis into the Circus Flaminius and then to the circus maximus and up the Via Sacra to the Capitol, where two white bulls were sacrificed. The general was dressed in the robes of Jupiter Capitolinus, a purple tunic (the toga picta), with golden shoes and an ivory scepter with an eagle on the top. His hair was adorned with a laurel branch. Riding in an ornate chariot with him was a public slave, holding a golden crown of Jupiter and uttering in his ear: "Remember thou art only a mortal." See Imperator; Imperium; Legatus; Ornamenta; Ovatio.

¤ TRIUMVIRATE, FIRST Political union formed in 60 B.C. by Julius caesar, pompey the great and Marcus Licinius crassus (1); its rise and subsequent success in the formation of government policy were mortal blows to the Roman Republic. By 60 b.c, all three were leading figures in the Roman Republic but had suffered defeats or humiliations at the hands of the senate and its suspicious spokesmen, such as cato uticensis and cicero. Caesar had returned to Rome from his service in Spain in the hopes of celebrating a triumph and then serving his consulship. First, he encountered senatorial opposition to his plans and had to sacrifice his triumph in order to ensure his election as consul, discovering then that his colleague was the strange M. Calpurnius bibulus. As a further act of cruelty, the Senate gave him the forests of Italy to manage, instead of the usual prominent provincial command.

Having been treated so poorly, Caesar determined to check the intrigues of the Senate by finding powerful allies who had likewise suffered. He quickly found Pompey. That famed and respected general had returned from the East and had been rebuffed in two of his projects, the ratification of his arrangements in the East and the granting pensions of land to his veterans. Crassus had failed to have his tax rebate for the farmers passed and thus was willing to listen to any reasonable offer.

Caesar first enlisted Pompey with a promise of mutual support. In return for Pompey's prestige, he guaranteed his own backing, including troops if needed. To seal the alliance, he wed his daughter julia (2) to Pompey in 59. Crassus had long disliked Pompey but decided to join in order to have a hand in guiding the state and to watch for his own interests. Thus was born the First Triumvirate, although its powers were only de facto and never received the full legal status enjoyed by the second triumvirate. Nevertheless, the triumvirs quickly became the foremost influence in the Republic. How effective the triumvirate could be was seen in 59, when Caesar entered into the consulship. The land bill introduced by Caesar was forced through the Senate, satisfying Pompey's veterans. Pompey's settlements in the East were ratified, and Crassus' farmers received their tax break. With his partners happy, Caesar asked for and got what he wanted most, a command of his own in the provinces. Through the Lex Vatinia de Caesaris Provincia he became governor of Gallia Cisalpina and illyricum. A short time later, Gallia Transalpina was added (by Pompey's hand). He was now in a position to embark upon the famed gallic wars, with the sanction of his colleagues. The senatorial opposition was, for a time, bullied into silence. Patience and skill would be needed if the triumvirate were to be broken by an outside source.

While at Rome the dangerous politician clodius pulcher became the workhorse of the triumvirate; both Cicero and Cato were removed from the scene by exile or by appointment to provincial positions (Cicero returned in 57). By 56 the old antagonism between Crassus and Pompey had arisen, as Caesar the mediator was absent in Gaul. Out-bursts between them were aggravated by Cicero, who sought to break the triumvirate. He hoped to turn the members against one another, using Lucius domitius ahenobarbus (1), a candidate for the consulship in 55 who had promised to strip Caesar of his provinces. Caesar took immediate steps to solve the crisis by convening the Conference of luca in April of 56. The triumvirs reaffirmed their pact, and Cicero was so overcome that he later served as spokesman for the triumvirate. Domitius Ahenobarbus was defeated in the consular elections, and Caesar's position in Gaul was made secure by the Lex Pompeia Licinia, guaranteeing him continued command until the year 50.

Crassus and Pompey both desired their own provincial possessions, clearly to counterbalance what they saw as Caesar's real success in Gaul. By the terms of the Lex Trebonia, Pompey took Spain, with a vast army, and Crassus sought his fortune in the East. Two events, tragic and unforeseen, had the most profound effect upon the future of the triumvirate. First, Julia died in 54, ending the era of peaceful relations between Caesar and Pompey. Then, Crassus was crushed and killed at the battle of carrhae, by the Parthians. The death of Crassus left Rome with only two triumvirs. The following years were filled with Caesar's completion of his conquest of Gaul, while Pompey inched closer to the senatorial party. He avoided an open breach with Caesar for as long as possible, but the Senate's determination that Caesar should surrender his legions made war unavoidable. The triumvirate was over as Caesar rode over the rubicon.

¤ TRIUMVIRATE, SECOND Political alliance formed in 43 B.C. among Octavian (Augustus), Marc antony and Marcus Aemilius lepidus (1). Following the battle of mutina in April of 43, Octavian understood that the cause of Republicanism was not the way for him to achieve power and thus arranged a meeting with the two leading figures of the Caesarian cause, Antony and Lepidus. They met at Bononia and, after several days of negotiations, agreed to start a new triumvirate.

This alliance differed from the original triumvirate of Crassus, Pompey and Caesar in 60 B.C. in that by virtue of the Lex Titia of November 27, 43, the official and legal status of tresviri republicae constituende was given to each, enabling them to make laws, issue decrees, appoint governors, make wars and act with powers superior to that of any magistrate of Rome. Further, each member possessed a specific territory: Antony held Gallia Cisalpina and Transalpina; Lepidus had the remainder of the Gallic lands and Nearer and Further Spain, while Octavian received Africa, Sicily and Sardinia. Lepidus was to govern Italy, while Antony and Octavian dealt with the immediate crisis of the liberators (Caesar's assassins) and the remnant of the Republican forces.

A war with brutus and cassius was accompanied by the terrible episode of the proscriptions. The triumvirs had their lists of enemies, and many died. One of the first was cicero, Antony's hated enemy, cut down and his hands nailed to the Rostra. Others fled from Italy, many seeking safety with Sextus pompey, son of pompey the great. At the battle of philippi in 42, Antony and Octavian destroyed the Liberators and terminated the last hopes for the Republic in the Roman world. With the victory, Antony went to the forefront in the triumvirate, for an ill Octavian had not yet made his presence felt, and Lepidus was suspected of ulterior motives and secret negotiations with Sextus Pompey. According to the arrangements resulting from the victory, Antony commanded all of Gaul (including Gallia Cisalpina), Octavian had Spain, Africa and Sardinia, while Lepidus was to be granted Africa from Octavian, if he stayed loyal to the cause.

Italy became neutral territory as a result, but in truth it was in Rome that Octavian consolidated his power, as Antony abandoned the West and took up residence in the East. Strains developed quickly, not between Antony and Octavian but because Antony's wife fulvia and his brother Lucius viewed Octavian as the enemy. The perusine war in 41 was the result, and Octavian proved triumphant. Fulvia died in 40, making a reconciliation between the triumvirs possible. The Treaty of brundisium was signed soon after. Lepidus retained Africa, but everything else was divided between Antony and Octavian. Antony chose the East, leaving Octavian the western regions, and the contract was sealed with Antony's marriage to Octavian's sister octavia (1). Sextus Pompey remained a threat, and a treaty signed at Misenum granted him Corsica, Sicily and Sardinia. In return he ceased his piratic activities. Freed of this irritant, Antony launched operations against Armenia and parthia, and Octavian returned to war with Sextus. By 37 both needed the other. Antony required troops, and Octavian needed ships. Through the intervention of Octavia the two met again, at tarentum, coming away barely satisfied with the extension of the Lex Titia.

While Antony was being defeated by the Parthians and falling under Queen Cleopatra's spell, Octavian destroyed Sextus Pompey in 36 at naulochus. That victory brought about the destruction of Lepidus as well, for he tried to stage a coup and failed, spending his remaining years as the butt of Octavian's ill humor, becoming Pontifex Maximus until his death in 13/12 B.C. As had happened with the first triumvirate, two men now ruled Rome, a situation that could not last. With his title of divus filius, or son of the divine Caesar, Octavian had the upper hand. He won the ultimate victories and became Augustus.

¤ TROAS, ALEXANDRIA City on the northwest coast of asia minor, west of mysia in the mountainous region of the Troad; named thus because of the legend that the entire region was once ruled by Troy. After the death of Alexander the Great, his General Antigonus became king of Asia, founding the metropolis of Antigoneia, later called Alexandria Troas or Alexandria of the Troad. While it never attained the status or wealth of the fabled Troy, Alexandria Troas was prosperous. After suffering in the civil war of the second triumvirate, it enjoyed many centuries of peace in the imperial age. The city was considered as the site of the new Constantinople but lost out to Byzantium (about 160 miles away).

¤ TROGUS, POMPEIUS (fl. late 1st century B.C.) Historian of the early Augustan age (27 B.C.-14 A.D.) who was a contemporary of livy; authored the Historiae Philippicae, or Philippic Histories, in 44 volumes. He came probably from gallia narbonensis, and his father may have been used as an interpreter by Julius Caesar in 54 B.C. It has been argued that Trogus relied almost exclusively on Greek sources for his work, especially Timagenes, the evidence being his concentration on other states of the ancient world, such as Macedonia and parthia. Ignored to a great degree was Rome, which could have been a result of using Greek sources. Other writers consulted by Trogus included Theopompus, Timaeus, Posidonius and Polybius. Trogus' history survived only through its table of contents and the abridgement made by Justin (M. Jurtianus Justinius), who lived perhaps in the 2nd or 3rd century A.D.

¤ TROYES City in northern gallia, on the Seine River about 90 miles southeast of Paris. Of little importance until the 10th century A.D., Troyes was converted to Christianity in the 4th century and figured in the legendary feats of St. Lupus, attila the Hun was marching on Troyes in 453 but left the inhabitants unmolested when Lupus (or St. Loup), using the sheer power of his will, convinced the Scourge of God (as Attila was called) to move elsewhere.

¤ TUBERO, LUCIUS AELIUS (fl. mid-lst century B.C.) Adherent of the New Academy and an intimate friend and brother-in-law to cicero. He served as a lieutenant to Q. Cicero in Asia from around 61 to 58 B.C. and later joined the Pompeians in the war against Julius caesar. Pardoned by Caesar, he returned to Rome, where he pursued literary interests. His historical work may have been completed by his son Quintus Aelius tubero.

¤ TUBERO, QUINTUS AELIUS (fl. late 1st century B.c.) Minor literary figure; the son of Lucius Aelius tubero, and considered an excellent orator, historian and writer on law. He was mentioned in the Digest but also authored a sizable history, dating from Rome's earliest days down to the civil war between pompey the great and caesar. In that war he joined his father in aiding Pompey's cause but was granted a pardon by the victorious Caesar.

¤ TULLIANUM, DUNGEONS OF Dismal prison (career) at the base of the Capitoline Hill and just north of the forum romanum. According to legend, the dungeons were built by Servius Tullius as an addition to the career of Rome and always had an unpleasant reputation; they achieved a special notoriety in the reign of tiberius. Through the efficient work of sejanus, the Prefect of the praetorian guard, many died cruelly in the Tullianum until, in 31 A.D., Sejanus was himself taken there and executed.

¤ TURBO, QUINTUS MARCIUS (fl. 117-138 A.D.) Prefect of the praetorian guard throughout much of the reign of Emperor hadrian and one of the most trusted friends and political allies of the emperor. From Dalmatia originally, Turbo became Hadrian's friend early on and was no doubt accepted into the Equestrians (equites) as a result of this relationship, which also probably aided his rise in the military. Upon the accession of Hadrian in 117, Turbo took command of the legions in the Eastern provinces, with orders to liquidate the Jewish rebels. This he accomplished ruthlessly, pacifying Egypt, Palestine and Cyrenaica. Pleased, the emperor put him in charge of Mauretania where he crushed a Moorish uprising. There followed a rare honor. Turbo was named as legate for dacia and pannonia, a highly unusual posting for a member of the Equestrian Order. He proved the perfect man for the job, reorganizing Dacia along Hadrian's personal lines of imperial policy. As a reward for his loyalty and success, Turbo was made prefect of the Praetorian Guard, succeeding the voluntarily retiring Attianus. According to the historian Dio, Turbo was an excellent prefect, humble and hardworking throughout his term of office. He spent virtually the entire day at the palace, laboring as well through the night. His response to Hadrian when told to remain in bed when sick: "The Prefect should die on his feet." As was the case with many friends of Hadrian, Turbo was persecuted as the ruler grew old. Hadrian probably put him to death or compelled him to take his own life.

¤ TURIN City known originally as Augusta Taurinorum; a creation of the Augustan policy of colonization throughout the Roman world, it was located in the Po Valley of Gallia Cisalpina and in the shadow of the Alps. Turin was a city of little consequence until 69 A.D., when the inhabitants had to extinguish a blaze that burned down a large number of structures. The fire may have been caused by vitellius' legions, who were on the point of murdering one another. Turin was rebuilt but figured only slightly in the events of succeeding centuries. As with other Roman colonies, its greatness lay in the future.

¤ TURRANIUS, GAIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) Prefect of the Grain for Rome, from the time of Augustus until the reign of Claudius. This long-serving praefectus annonae was one of the first officials to take the oath of allegiance to Emperor tiberius in 14 A.D.; he weathered the reigns of Tiberius and gaius caligula and, incredibly, was still at his post in 48, aiding Claudius in the crisis caused by messallina.

¤ TURRULLIUS, PUBLIUS (fl. late 1st century B.C.) Senator and one of the plotters against Julius caesar; he survived the proscriptions of the second triumvirate, probably through his friendship with Marc antony. Subsequently, he lived with Antony as a client, escaping the vengeance of Octavian (Augustus). In 30 b.c, when Octavian was in a position of advantage after the battle of actium, Antony tried to appease him by sending to him Turrullius. Octavian then put him to death to avenge Caesar and to appease Asclepius, the god of medicine, whose groves on Kos had been desecrated by Turrullius when he chopped down the trees to build Antony's ships.

¤ TUSCUS, CAECINA (fl. 1st century A.D.) Prefect of Egypt during part of the reign of nero, he was removed from his post and banished for the sole reason that he had used the baths in Alexandria. The baths had been constructed for an intended visit of Nero in 67 A.D.

¤ TWELVE TABLES The oldest Roman legal code (dating from 451/450 B.C.) and the basis for all subsequent development in Rome's complex system of law. While the actual date of the Twelve Tables, among other questions, has not been verified, they were probably written as a lex ordered by the comitia centuriata and published on bronze in the forum romanum. Destroyed by Gallic invaders in 390 b.c, the Tables were subsequently known only in fragmented form. It can be deduced, however, that they centered on numerous aspects of law and were fundamental to Roman legalism, as evidenced by the continued adherence of subsequent law to the tenets supposedly laid down by the Tables. In time, Roman law surpassed the codes of the Twelve Tables, rendering them obsolete. Prior to the Twelve Tables, knowledge of the law had been the exclusive privilege of the patricians.

¤ TYRE Ancient metropolis built on the Mediterranean coast of Phoenicia (modern Lebanon) and considered one of the great ports of antiquity. Its period of grandeur ended in 322 b.c, when it was sacked by Alexander the Great. Henceforth it was overshadowed by Alexandria. As a city in the Roman province of Syria, Tyre was noted for its purple dye. From herod the great the city received financial aid, and Claudius gave it further assistance, after which it became known officially as Claudiopolis, although Tyre remained the common usage, strabo wrote that it was not a pleasant place in which to live.

¤ TYRRHENIAN SEA Body of water roughly confined by the islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily and the western coast of Italy; known as the Tyrrhenum Mare. Colonists in Italy settled on the western side of the peninsula because the Tyrrhenian offered many advantages over the Adriatic on the east. First, it allowed for economic ties with southern Gaul (gallia), Spain (hispania) and Africa. Second, its weather was normally superior, especially when compared to the dangerous Adriatic. The number of ports and landing sites was also greater, making navigation easier, and it offered accessible inland waterways, including the Arno and the tiber. With the establishment of the Roman Empire, patrolling and defending the Tyrrhenian Sea became the responsibility of the imperial navy. At first the fleet for the Western Mediterranean was stationed at Forum lulii, but later it was moved to misenum, on the western Italian coast near Naples.