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¤ RABIRIUS (fl. late 1st century A.D.) Architect whose masterpiece of design was produced at the order of Emperor Domitian, who hired him to create the DOMUS FLAVIA. He was a friend of MARTIAL.

¤ RADAGAISUS (d. 406 A.D.) Barbarian ruler of a loose confederation of tribes, mostly composed of VANDALS, who led two invasions of imperial provinces in the West, in 401 and 405 A.D.. The first onslaught by Radagaisus came at the same time that ALARIC and the Visigoths were threatening Italy and Rome. Advancing into Raetia and Noricum, Radagaisus was attached by the MAGISTER MILITUM. STILICHO and thoroughly defeated. The crushed tribes withdrew and even had to supply auxiliaries for use against Alaric. In 405, Radagaisus returned, with large elements of OSTROGOTHS. Ignoring the Danubian provinces, the host descended on Italy via Aquileia; they then split up into columns, the largest under Radagaisus. Stilicho once more devised a suitable strategy, massacring the barbarians. Throughout late 405 and 406 the forces of Radagaisus were ground down and destroyed until he was captured and executed in August 406. See also POLLENTIA.

¤ RADAMISTUS OF IBERIA (d. 58 A.D.) Son of King PHARASMANES of Iberia. By 51 A.D., Radamistus was eager to have his own throne, and Pharasmanes, hoping to avoid losing his own kingdom, pointed his son toward MITHRIDATES (1) of Armenia, Pharasmanes' own brother. Feigning an argument with his father, Radamistus fled to Mithridates but returned, unable to bring down that king through conspiracies. Gathering an army he invaded Armenia, besieging his uncle at Garneae. Through bribery of local Roman officials, Radamistus lured Mithridates out and had him killed. Assuming the throne, the new monarch of Armenia found himself under attack by his own subjects. Without support from his father, who had to balance himself politically with Rome and Parthia, Radamistus fled the country, abandoning his own wife. In 58, as an act of good faith to Nero, Pharasmanes put Radamistus to death.

¤ RAETIA One of Rome's smaller Danubian provinces, occupying the Alpine territory between GERMANIA Superior and NORICUM, just north of Italy and just south of the DANUBE. The original inhabitants were called the Rhaeti (or Raeti). Believed to be of Illyrian or perhaps of Tuscan descent, they lived in northern Italy until the Celts pushed them out. Moving to the region of modern Tyrol, Bavaria and a part of Switzerland, the Rhaeti proved warlike and willing to cross the Alps to make raids into GALLIA CISALPINA.

Roman conquest of Raetia came in 16 B.C. when P. Silius Nerva defeated them in battle. This success was followed up by Drusus the Elder and Tiberius in 15, with a large-scale invasion that brought all of Raetia under imperial control. Initial policy put Raetia under the care of the governor of Gallia Belgica. After Germanicus departed Gaul and Germany in 16 A.D., the legate of Gallia Belgica appointed some kind of officer over the region. Opinions have varied among scholars as to the exact title of this officer, some favoring a prefect (praefectus civitatum), while others prefer an equestrian procurator. In any event, after the reign of Trajan (98-117 A.D.) a procurator was in charge. His seat was at Augustus Vindelicorum, with command over auxiliary units. There were four alae (auxiliary cavalry) and 11 cohorts at first, changing to three alae and 13 cohorts in the middle of the 2nd century A.D.

Massive upheaval afflicted the province as a result of the MARCOMANNIC WARS, not only with bitter fighting, but also with changes in the administration. A legate (LEGATUS), in charge of the III Italica legion took over the duties of the procurator. The added troops allowed the frontiers to be watched, especially the area along the defensive perimeter of the LIMES, where the Rhine met the Danube, as well as the agri decumates. A procurator eventually returned, but under Diocletian, Raetia was divided into Raetia I and II, in the diocese of Italia. From the start of the 5th century pressures built up on the Danubian border, and by the fall of the Western Empire Raetia had ceased to be an imperial possession.

¤ RATIONALIS Chief financial minister of the state, prior to the reforms of Emperor Diocletian and the Late Empire, Among the tasks of the rationalis were the collection of all normal taxes and duties, the control of currency, and the administration of mines and mints. After the reforms of Diocletian, the rationalis and the a RATIONIBUS were replaced by the comes Sacrorum largitionum. See also FINANCE.

¤ RATIONIBUS, A Secretary of finance, in charge of maintaining the accounts and expenditures of the FISCUS, His role in the finances of the Early Empire was considerable. Originally an office held by a freedman, from the 2nd century A.D. and the reign of Hadrian, Equestrians (EQUITES) assumed total control. The a rationibus was rendered unnecessary by the comes sacrarum largitionum of the 4th cen- tury A.D. See FINANCE.

¤ RAURICI Tribe residing in Gaul between the SEQUANI and the HELVETII. Suffering from the inroads of Germanic peoples in Gaul, they joined the Helvetians in their attempted migration to better lands in southern Gaul, sharing in the defeat at the hands of Julius CAESAR in 58 B.C. In 52 B.C. some elements of the Raurici threw in with VERCINGETORIX but were again routed by Caesar at ALESIA. Subsequently, the tribe was under the influence and control of the Roman administration in Germania Superior, in such cantons as Basel and Augusta Rauricorum.

¤ RAVENNA North Italian city; in Gallia Cisalpina, a few miles inland from the Adriatic coast in the middle of marshes. Ravenna may have been founded by the Thessalians, although the name was probably Etruscan in origin. It passed into the hands of the Umbrians and was insignificant in the affairs of Rome until the late 1st century B.C., when Emperor Augustus was looking for an ideal location for his Adriatic fleet. With its marshes, accessibility from only one direction by land, and its position far enough north to defend Aquileia, Ravenna was chosen.

Already a MUNICIPIUM in 49 B.C., the city underwent major reconstruction and improvement to accommodate its new status. Most important, a canal was dug from the Po River to the city and then to the coast to allow small-boat traffic along the route. The subsequent harbor, called Classis, came to dominate the economic and political life of the city, for it was its very heart. As one of the major ports in the Mediterranean, Ravenna flourished with exports, including wine, ships and the goods produced throughout northern Italy, especially in MEDIOLANUM (Milan).

While the port held the fleet it remained strategically essential to imperial naval defenses; but by the 4th century A.D., the seagoing might of Rome had deteriorated. By the 5th century, Ravenna's fortunes improved as it became capital of the Western Empire. In 404 A.D., Emperor HONORIUS decided that Ravenna, with its defensively advantageous, mosquito-ridden environs and stout walls, was the safest place to conduct government. He thus moved there and subsequent emperors lived both there and in Rome. So easily defended was Ravenna that the barbarian king ODOACER adopted it as his chief city, as did the Ostrogoth Theodoric, the Byzantines and even the Lombards, centuries later.

¤ REBURRUS, T. CRISPUS (fl. late 1st century A.D.) One of the finest Roman architects, responsible for the design of two superb amphitheaters, in NEMAUSUS (Nimes) and ARLES. Both were virtually identical in style and both have survived in amazingly fine condition.

¤ REBUS, AGENTES IN The imperial courier service that replaced the unpopular FRUMENTARII, sometime during the late 3rd century A.D. under Emperor Diocletian, or perhaps around the year 319 A.D. As a result of the reforms of Diocletian, the frumentarii were disbanded; their sinister reputation had ended their usefulness. But the central imperial administration still needed couriers, and agentes in rebus filled this task perfectly. Originally they acted as the dispatch carriers for the Roman Empire. Eventually they assumed a variety of other duties. During the reign of Constantius II (337-361 A.D.), the agentes were sent out to the provinces and were expected to monitor the mail and communications and to send back reports on the events within their provincial jurisdictions. Their routine assignments brought them into contact with vast amounts of intelligence, and with the full approval of Constantius they ferreted out all possibly treasonous activities. Two were appointed to each province in 357, one in 395 and more again after 412. Each member of the agentes in rebus was normally promoted into other branches of government.

The corps, with its known activity of gathering secrets as the frumentarii had, acquired a name for terror. There has been debate as to the extent of their secret police work, for actual arrests and torture probably did not fall under their authority. However, in the hands of a ruthless emperor like Constantius II, they could be given considerable freedom in hunting down information or evidence of a crime. This facet of their activities overshadowed other, more mundane aspects, such as carrying letters or verifying that a traveler was carrying the right DIPLOMATA while using the CURSUS PUBLICUS (postal system).

¤ RECTUS (d. 40 A.D.) A Stoic philosopher in Rome and a friend of Julius KANUS. In 40 A.D., he was put to death by Emperor Gaius Caligula as part of his purge of Stoics and philosophers.

¤ RECTUS, AEMILIUS (early 1st century A.D.) Prefect of Egypt early in the reign of Tiberius (14-37 A.D.). He was overly zealous in the collection of taxes on the Nile. When he sent to Rome far more money than expected, Tiberius wrote him: "I expect my sheep to be shorn, not shaved."

¤ RED SEA One of the main avenues of TRADE between the West and the Far East. Ships from INDIA sailed up the sea, passing the Troglodyte Coast on the left and ARABIA on the right. Important trading centers were Leuke Komo, belonging to the Nabataeans, and Arsinoe, opposite Pelusium, along the Sinai Peninsula. Roman vessels probably patrolled the region, at least as far as the borders of the province of EGYPT.

¤ REGALIANUS (fl. 3rd century A.D.) Roman general in the army of the emperors Valerian and Gallienus, also known as Regillianus; in 260 A.D. was proclaimed emperor. He had supposedly been commander of the legions in ILLYRICUM when elevated; unable to hold the loyalty of his troops, he was murdered.

¤ REGULUS, PUBLIUS MEMMIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) Consul in 31 A.D., holding his office during the fall of the prefect SEJANUS. Loyal to Tiberius, it was Regulus who summoned Sejanus to face the charges read before the Senate, and he also led out the prefect to be arrested by Cornelius Laco, prefect of the city. As a reward for his services, he replaced Poppaeus Sabinus as governor of Macedonia and perhaps Achaea in 35. Married to LOLLIA PAULINA, he was forced to see her wed to Emperor GAIUS CALIGULA in 38, although the emperor later divorced her.

¤ RELEGATIO A form of banishment, less severe than EXSILIUM, during the Republic and early Roman Empire. It was similar to exile except that it did not include the loss of citizenship and possessions. The writer Ovid, for example, was ordered to live in Tomi, near the Black Sea.

¤ RELIGION One of the guiding forces of the life and sociopolitical systems of Rome. Although old and established, Roman religion was ever altered and influenced- and ultimately destroyed-by the foreign gods and cults brought into Rome by the conquering legions and by the emperors. The Italians, and later the Romans, sprang from the same agrarian background as the Greeks, and perceived that nature was controlled by powerful natural forces. However, the early gods and goddesses of Rome never developed the anthropomorphic tendencies so obvious in the Hellenic pantheon. Roman deities retained their identification with nature, being worshipped in this sense. As there were spirits at work in every corner of the cosmos, new gods sprang up and were worshipped, joining such established divinities as Jupiter, Juno, Mars and Vesta. This accepted idea of adding gods to the cults of Rome had the most profound consequences on the development of Roman religion. It not only made Rome more tolerant of such foreign creeds as Judaism but also helped ensure the popularity of the gods of vanquished states.

The Greeks arrived in Rome probably before the end of the kingly era. Shrines by Tarquinius to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva elevated these three to the level of supreme rulers of the Roman pantheon. Other Grecian imports included Apollo, Cybele and Asclepius (Aesculapius). Total victory for the Greeks came only after the Punic Wars, when the Romans, now masters of the Mediterranean world, adopted wholesale Greek identities for their gods. Old, titanic forces of nature were replaced by new, more human deities, in an ironic replaying of Greece's own theological history. Zeus was Jupiter, Hera was Juno, Athena was Minerva, Poseidon was Neptune and so on.

Early in Roman religious history a tendency developed to link political power with religion. The kings of Rome probably began this idea, acting as heads of the priesthoods of Rome while retaining their monarchical status. In the Republic this system was unchanged, placing, as it did, broad authority in the hands of the Patrician class. Magistrates formed the priestly colleges, performed the ceremonies of worship and responded to the decrees of the Senate, which decided most questions of a religious or doctrinal nature. But there was no centralization or institutionalization of the cult of state, a situation made worse by the rise of the Plebeians. Thus, while the sacred rites were performed right up until the end of the Republic, they had lost much of their meaning.

The fact that the fields of state and religion could be fused had been proven by the kings, to a lesser extent by the magistrates, and, in terms of literature, by Varro, with his Antiquitates, which combined his studies of human and divine antiquities. What was needed was the presence of one single figure at the center of the cult. Julius Caesar was certainly in a position to be that figure, but he died before most of his plan could be realized. The leader who did succeed was Augustus.

After becoming master of the Roman world by 27 B.C., the man named Octavian assumed the title of Augustus, an indication of his more than human stature. The title was taken presumably with the approval of the Roman gods, and he served as the pontifex maximus or supreme head of all Roman worship, a position retained by his successors until the reign of Gratian in the late 4th century A.D. A revival accompanied his supremacy. The ARVAL BRETHREN were reinvigorated, and throughout the Empire the divine station of the emperor and Rome was preached to the provinces (see IMPERIAL CULT for details).

It can be argued that the Augustan religious revival was neither long-lasting nor successful. The Romans willingly participated in the ceremonies necessary for keeping the favor of the gods or hailing the glory of their Empire, but so politically entwined had the gods become that they had lost spiritual impact. For divine inspiration Rome looked elsewhere, finding its answers in the same place that the Roman soldier had looked: the Oriental cults. Unquestionably, foreign deities were popular at all levels of society, fitting into the Roman system because of its provisions for individual worship outside of the nationally revered pantheon.

Traditionally, the state of Rome took a dim view of strange cults, refusing at first to let them cross the sanctity of the POMERIUM, or the ancient line of the city. Cybele, with her bizarre priests, was not formally accepted until the time of Claudius, although a temple to her was allowed on the Palatine as early as 191 B.C. Augustus helped introduce his patron, Apollo. The most important early breakthrough came in the time of Gaius Caligula, who built a temple to Isis in Rome. Henceforth, as the Claudian favor to Cybele showed, strange gods were welcome.

Mithraism, with its connection to sun worship, arrived also in the 1st century A.D., from the East. It found followers in the ranks of the army and among the social elite. Oriental faiths soon spread throughout the Eastern Empire, with Serapis, Elagabalus and even Osiris offering choices to the soul-searching Romans. Two interesting trends evolved toward the end of the 2nd century: syncretism and monotheism. Syncretism, the mixing together of one or more deities into a single form, was used in the Mithraic cult, as the god was sometimes equated with Sol Invictus. The effect of all this was to render Roman mythology into a debased and mystical mode of worship. Monotheism, born perhaps out of Mithraic-Solar belief and Christianity, was a partial return to the prime deity of the cult of state. Sol, sometimes known as Elagabalus in the early 3rd century, was respected by the Flavians and placed at the heart of the Roman religion of state by Aurelian. All that Sol Invictus succeeded in doing, however, was to prepare the Roman Empire psychologically for the far more enduring god of Christianity.

This eastern cult, which came to conquer the entire Empire, was one of the few creeds actively persecuted by Rome. After Judaism effectively separated itself from Christianity, Christians came under attack because of the realization that belief in Jesus Christ was exclusive. One could not attend Christian services as well as offer sacrifices to Jupiter. An eternal enmity erupted between Christianity and what came to be known as organized paganism.

In addition, a variety of creeds and cults were tolerated by Rome among its subject people, including:

See also ASTROLOGY; DEATH; FESTIVALS; GENIUS; GODS AND I GODDESSES OF ROME; LUDI; MAGIC; NEOPLATONISM; NEO-PYTHAGOREANISM; PAGANISM; PRIESTHOOD.

¤ REMISTUS (5th century A.D.) MAGISTER MILITUM and I PATRICIAN, who was one of the most powerful figures in the Western Empire and a political shield for Emperor AVITUS in 455. The positions of magister militum in praesentalis I and patrician were coveted by his lieutenant, the magister militum RICIMER. To seize Remistus' post and to replace Avitus eventually with his own candidate, MAJORIAN, Ricimer plotted the assassination of his superior. This he accomplished in 456, while Remistus was at Ravenna.

¤ REPENTINUS, FABIUS CORNELIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD during the reigns of Antoninus Pius (138-161 A.D.), Marcus Aurelius (161-180 A.D.) and perhaps Commodus (177-192 A.D.). Repentinus succeeded to the prefecture with Furius Victorinus, following the death (date uncertain) of Tattius Maximus. He was forced to step down following a scandal that he had received his position through the influence of an imperial mistress.

¤ RES GESTAE DIVI AUGUSTUS A set of inscriptions published in Rome following the death of Emperor Augustus in 14 A.D., detailing the political, social, religious and architectural achievements of his reign. Written by Augustus before his death, the Achievements of Divine Augustus was most certainly a propaganda device but characteristically was neither ostentatious nor pompous. In clear terms he listed the successes of his regime, its gifts to the Romans and the good services it had rendered to the world. The Res Gestae was a brilliant means of shaming any who might have questioned the efficacy of the Augustan principate, while preserving for posterity a record of considerable value. It is also known as the Monumentum Ancyranum, from a copy of a stone at Ankara.

¤ RES PRIVATA Term used to describe the vast possessions of the emperors. Known officially as the res privata principis, it was the inevitable outgrowth of the patrimonium or private holdings of the imperial house, and came to be a rival to the FISCUS or state domains. Following the victory of Septimius Severus (ruled 193-211 A.D.) over his rivals, Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, he was confronted with a major crisis in the finances of the Roman Empire. Among his solutions was the outright seizure of property belonging to his vanquished enemies. These new estates, coupled with the already extensive lands included in the patrimonium increased the personal wealth of the Severans to such a degree that an entirely new treasury had to be created, the res privata was under the care of procurators, with a parallel in the RATIONALIS of the fiscus. Under the later emperors, res privata passed into the hands of the comes rerum firivatarum. See also FINANCE.

¤ RHEIMS Originally the capital city of the Gallic tribe of the RHEMI, later made the capital of Gallia Belgica. Situated just south of the Aisne River and east of LUTETIA (Paris), in a position close enough to GERMANIA to make control of the Rhine frontier possible, the imperial governor had his residence there, while the Rhemi continued to occupy the civitas of Rheims. See also GALLIA.

¤ RHEMI One of the largest and most powerful Gallic tribes of Gallia Belgica; located near their capital of RHEIMS. In 57 B.C., Julius CAESAR invaded Gallia Belgica, and the Rhemi (or Rheimi) wisely decided to make an alliance with Rome. Caesar received from them vast amounts of intelligence concerning the other peoples of the regions, and the Rhemi also provided him with scouts. Throughout the GALLIC WARS, the Rhemi remained steadfastly loyal to Caesar, emerging as the second leading state in Gaul (GALLIA). They continued to enjoy Roman favor, working against the uprising of CIVILIS in 69 A.D.

¤ RHESCUPORIS OF THRACE (d.c. 19 A.D.) Also known as Rhascyporis; king of THRACE, and a schemer for the throne. When his brother Rhoemetalces died sometime in the later years of Augustus' reign (27 B.C.-14 A.D.), Thrace was divided between Rhescuporis and the old ruler's son, Cotys. By 19 A.D., Rhescuporis was plotting to take over the entire realm. Despite the intervention of Rome, Cotys was trapped and killed. Emperor Tiberius ordered L. Pomponius Flaccus to bring Rhescuporis to Rome, where he was accused by Coty's widow, Antonia Tryphaena. For his crime he was sentenced to exile in Alexandria and later put to death.

¤ RHETORIC An art form brought to Rome from Greece, only to suffer a general decline in skill and originality with the advent of the Roman Empire. Rhetorical speaking, or persuasive speechmaking, that was aimed at achieving acclaim or some purpose saw considerable development during the Republic, nurturing such professional practitioners as Cicero. Training in rhetoric was available only in a rhetor's school, and it was considered essential for an educated individual aspiring to public office to be versed fully in rhetorical oration. This process changed with the rise of the emperors. No longer was speaking in the Senate or as an ADVOCATUS of the court the surest road to success. Favoritism and flattery of a ruler became more expedient tools.

Rhetoric did not die, however, for it found other avenues of acceptance. The most eminent and, arguably the least redeeming was the declamatio or recitation in public of literary creations. Declamations had always been a useful method of teaching, but they were influenced by a pandering toward fashionable tastes. This corruption was made worse by Asinius Pollio, reportedly the first rhetorician to give his declamatio to an invited audience. Composed of the elite of Roman society, the private crowd could reward rhetors who pleased its members with influence and status. No longer was rhetoric aimed at influencing the public good; it was now focused on entertainment and public favor. Over time the dedamatio came to be called recitationes, while the original term returned to its more formal legal meaning. Nevertheless, rhetoric had lost the vitality of its Republican roots and came to be used only by a dwindling number of experts.

¤ RHINE Called the Rhenus by the Romans, this river rises in the Swiss Alps and flows over 800 miles northward to the sea; one of the great dividing lines between the Roman Empire and the barbarian world. It first came to the attention of the Romans when the German leader ARIOVISTUS crossed westward over the river and menaced much of eastern Gaul. Although he was defeated, his vanquisher, Julius Caesar, perceived the threat coming from the Suebi and was determined to cross the river. This he did in 55 B.C., using a bridge of boats; he crossed again in 53.

Subsequently, the Roman legions passed over the Rhine frequently, especially during the reign of Augustus (27 B.C.-14 A.D.), when imperial policy was aimed at transforming inner Germany into a province. These hopes were destroyed with General Varus in 9 A. D. in the TEUTOBURG FOREST. Domitian's successful operations against the CHATTI in 83 gave Rome an extension into Germania Superior that carried beyond the Rhine, the so-called agri decumates. Using the LIMES along the entire border, Rome held this territory for centuries. Then instability on the frontiers brought the loss of the agri. Once more the Rhine was the natural termination point of civilization and Roman influence. Beyond lurked a barbaric and increasingly hostile collection of peoples.

¤ RHODES Most easterly of the islands in the Aegean, situated off the coast of Caria in Asia Minor. From the time of Vespasian (ruled 69-79 A.D.), Rhodes, known as Rhodus, was attached to the province of ASIA. The island had a long history of excellent relations with Rome, helping in the Macedonian and Mithridatic Wars. Supporting the cause of Julius Caesar during the Civil War, Rhodes was plundered mercilessly by Gaius Cassius in 42 B.C. but was richly rewarded by Augustus for its loyalty. Starting in 6 B.C., Tiberius took up residence on the island in a self-imposed exile from the disappointments of Rome; he would depart to become adopted by Augustus in 4 A.D. Because of their act of crucifying several Roman citizens, the Rhodians were deprived of their independence in 44 A.D. by Claudius. Appealing to Nero in 53, they were given their own government again, although prosperity was never actually attained. An earthquake in 155 A.D. flattened most of the island, and henceforth it remained one of the least developed corners of the Empire.

¤ RHOEMETALCES I (d. 12 A.D.) King of Thrace; originally a dynastic ruler, he was recognized as king as a result of siding with Octavian (AUGUSTUS) during his war with Marc ANTONY (c. 31 B.C.). With the help of Roman arms and influence, he was able to remain on the throne, serving as a reliable client to Augustus. Around 11 B.C., however, the tribe of the Bessi, under Vologaesus, burst upon Thrace, driving Rhoemetalces from the country and killing his son Rhescuporis. Only through direct imperial intervention and three years of fighting did he regain his crown. Rhoemetalces returned the favor of the Romans by defeating the rebelling Dalmatians in 6 A. D. Upon his death, Thrace was divided between his brother Rhescuporis and his son Cotys.

¤ RICIMER, FLAVIUS (d. 472 A.D.) MAGISTER MILITUM from 456 to 472 and PATRICIAN from 457. Ricimer was the most pivotal imperial figure in the Western Empire during its final years. An Arian of mixed barbarian blood, he had a Suebian father and a Visigoth mother who was related to King Wallia of the Visigoths. His rise was typical of the gifted generals of the time, reflecting political power gained through his defeat of a Vandal fleet in 456. For this triumph he was promoted to magister milirum of the West. Once entrenched in this position he overthrew Emperor AVITUS in favor of his own candidate, MAJORIAN, crushing Avitus at Placentia in October of 456. By 457 he had the title of patridus, or patrician, presumably receiving it with the blessing of the Eastern court on February 28 of that year. Majorian became emperor with his help, but when the ruler outlived his usefulness, Ricimer deposed him in 461. After Majorian's execution, he was replaced by LIBIUS SEVERUS. Unacceptable to Constantinople, Severus nevertheless remained on the throne from 461 to 465, solely because Ricimer wanted him there.

The magister militum spent the next years scheming against a rival, MARCELLINUS OF DALMATIA, while defending against attacks by GEISERIC, king of the Vandals and Alans, who invaded Italy unsuccessfully. In 465 he removed Severus (perhaps by poison) and administered the Empire for nearly two years, accepting a new emperor only in 467-ANTHEMIUS. To ensure his position in the new regime, Ricimer married Anthemius' daughter Alypia in 467 at Rome. Despite his supremacy in the Empire he carefully avoided participation in the doomed expedition of 468 against the Vandals of Africa. This lack of concern for the expedition may have led to his rupture with Anthemius in 470. Temporarily reconciled in 472, another break took place.

The Via Sacra, the sacred way

With the help of his nephew, Gundobad the Burgundian, Ricimer had the emperor put to death. Another weak successor was adorned with the purple in April of 472, but Ricimer died several weeks later, leaving the West in total chaos. Of all the magistri militum, Ricimer was one of the most destructive. He forced Libius Severus to surrender stretches of imperial territory to the barbarians and so routinely murdered his royal masters that no coherent policy or stability was ever possible while he lived.

¤ RICOMER (d. 393 A.D.) MAGISTER MILITUM from 388 to 393. Ricomer, or Richomeres, was a Frank by descent, becoming an officer in the service of Emperor GRATIAN. By 377 he was a comes domesticorum and was sent to Thrace to help Emperor VALENS in fighting the Goths. He was one of the few survivors of the battle of ADRIANOPLE in 378. Appointed magister militum in 383, he took control of the East, meeting at Antioch the famed orator LIBANIUS, who subsequently became his friend. Consul in 384, he was made commanding general of the East (comes et magister utriusque militiae) four years later. Ricomer was employed against MAGNUS MAXIMUS and emerged as an important advisor to the emperor THEODOSIUS I. Ricomer introduced his nephew ARBOGAST to the later Western usurper, EUGENIUS, whom Arbogast would support. Like these two, Ricomer adhered to PAGANISM.

¤ ROADS The Romans had learned the value of superb roadmaking in their expansion in Italy, and later used a vast network of travel routes as one of the most important aspects of domination of the Mediterranean world and the Roman Empire. An oft quoted maxim that all roads led to Rome was, indeed, correct, save that to the Romans all roads led from Rome. According to the Roman system, a gilded pillar was placed by Emperor AUGUSTUS in the FORUM ROMANUM to mark the beginning point of a radiating transportation system clearly marked by milestones from the Eternal City. No journeyer could ever forget that he walked or rode upon an imperial domain.

The Roman imperial roads were a benefit for all residents of the Empire and served a wide variety of purposes. The LEGIONS who most often created the roads used this efficient network to pass through provinces quickly to reach frontier posts or crisis spots. By marching through even mountainous terrain and along carefully designed ways (viae), there was no place they could not reach or defend. Campaigns very often centered on reducing an enemy country by destroying what was wild or natural. In Britain and Germany the local tribes were subdued and pacified by relentless roadmaking, cutting up the tribal boundaries and isolating the tribes.

Once the legions had finished their tasks, administrators moved into a new province. Soldiers were used once more to refine the communications system, uniting all provincial areas to the main thoroughfare before linking them with the interprovincial viae. Progressively complex, this method allowed even the smallest province to stay directly in touch with the emperor, via the most advanced system in the world at the time for sending messages and reports-the CURSUS PUBLICUS (the Imperial Post).

One of the parallel developments with the cursus was the rise of roadside inns, taverns and hotels. Mutationes were places where horses were changed, while mansiones offered a weary adventurer a bed for the night with food. Soon the roads were filled with traders and merchants bringing their wares to new markets. Economic expansion brought increased wealth to imperial coffers by means of taxes and duties, while fostering the ideals of internationalism so important to the Pax Romana.

Provinces varied as to how much roadwork was necessary to transform them into suitable imperial lands. Germany, Britain, Africa, parts of Spain and wilder sections of Asia Minor, such as Galatia, Cilicia and Cappadocia, all needed extensive amounts of capital and effort. Regions with long histories needed only minor alterations. Among these were the provinces of Asia, Greece, Macedonia and even Gaul. Outside of Italy, with its famous viae-the Appian, Flaminian and others-the Roman Empire possessed several other important roads, including the impressive Via Egnatia, running from the Black Sea through Macedonia, all the way to the Adriatic port of Dyrrhachium. It was a lifeline for communications, not only for Achaea and Macedonia but also for the entire Danubian frontier. Trade passed from the western and eastern provinces, providing income for such cities as Nicopolis and Thessalonica.

Several books were published concerning the imperial roads, including the Antonine Itinerary and the Jerusalem Itinerary. The first is from the late 3rd century A.D., detailing the main transportation routes through the Empire, including the distances. The Jerusalem Itinerary, of the 4th century A.D., helped Christians find their way to Jerusalem. See VIAE for major roads in Italy.

¤ ROBIGUS A Roman deity of nature whose main attributes were destructive powers through rust or blight. He could ruin crops if not appeased with the sacrifice of a sheep and a dog. Robigus (also called Robigo) was associated with Mars, hence all ceremonies in honor of him, especially the Robigalia, his festival on April 25, were under the direction of the Flamen Martialis. See also FLAMINES.

¤ ROLES A tribal leader of the GETAE, who lived just north of the Danube River, near the Black Sea. He came to the aid of the Roman General Marcius Licinius CRASSUS (2), in his war against Deldo and the Bastarnae in 29 B.C. In turn, Crassus helped Roles to vanquish a Getae rival named Da-pyx. Roles visited Augustus later and was honored. Subsequently, Roles and the Getae were stable clients of Rome on the eastern Danube.

¤ ROMA The divine personification of the city of Rome, a means of expressing in religious terms the greatness of the Eternal City, of the Empire and the Republic. Through the use of coins bearing the likeness of a beautiful woman, and through temples erected in her honor, Roma impressed upon the world the status of the Eternal City. She had a temple in Rome, constructed during the reign of Hadrian, and was worhshipped by the Greeks as well.

¤ ROMANUS (fl. late 4th century A.D.) The Comes Africae from 364 to 373, in charge of Africa during the reign of VALENTINIAN I (364-375 A.D.). He defended LEPCIS MAGNA from barbarian attack but was accused by the inhabitants of failing in his duty. The resulting proceedings were suppressed through the use of influence at court. Later arrested, he relied upon the political leader MEROBAUDES to save him. The writers Ammianus Marcellinus and ZOSIMUS were extremely hostile to him. See also GILDO.

¤ ROME Capital of the Roman Empire from the reign of AUGUSTUS (27 B.C.-14 A.D.) until that of DIOCLETIAN (284-305 A.D.), and one of the most famous cities in history. Rome also came to symbolize the achievements of the Empire in art, history, politics, culture, religion and engineering. It was the first of the great urban centers, encountering, centuries before its time, the travails of crowded life, pollution and social unrest.

» Geography

According to the traditions, Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by Romulus and his twin brother, Remus. Under Romulus' guidance and that of the succeeding kings of Rome, what was once but a small village of shepherds grew strong and well organized. Rome was situated in the Italian region of Latium, approximately 16 miles from the sea. The two outstanding features of the Roman environment were the Tiber River and the hills. The Tiber flowed down from the Apennines in the northeast and made a cursive bend as it reached the Tiber Valley. Near the Capitoline Hill there was the important island, Insula Tiberina. Over the years additional territory was added until finally, in the time of King Servius Tullius (578-535 B.C.), Rome comprised the Seven Hills.

Primitive Rome was centered around the Esquiline and Quirinal hills. Later, the Capitoline Hill emerged as the very heart of the Roman establishment, with its magnificent temples; the Palatine contained residences and eventually the homes of the emperors. Between them lay the area of the Velabrum, leading to the Tiber. The river was on the entire western side, with the Pincian Hill to the east. To the south of the Pincian, the hills and valleys lead all the way to the Caelian Hill. Also in this group were the Quirinal, Viminal and Esquiline hills. Upon these were gardens, baths, the CASTRA PRAETORIA and, at the foot of the Quirinal, the Subura. Between the Esquiline and Palantine was a valley, the Velia. To the west was another valley, in which the Fora of the Caesars were built. Toward the east, past the end of the Via Sacra, was an open area, surrounded by the Esquiline and Caelian hills and used by Nero for his Golden House. The Flavians filled in Nero's pond and erected the Colosseum on the site.

Beneath the Palatine were two areas of further interest. The Circus Maximus was in a depression between the Palatine and the Aventine. The Aventine Hill was an excellent place to see the separation of classes, for the poor lived at the base of the hill, and the wealthy had villas at the top, with a view of the city. Across the Tiber were the Vatican and Janiculus hills. The Vatican had its own Christian history, while the Janiculus played a minor role in Roman events with its early fortress.

Rome relied upon the mighty river Tiber for defense from the Etruscans but also for the divine patronage of the god TIBER, called Volturnus. At first all bridges across it were made of wood to allow the Romans to cut them down in time of attack. As the city grew in power, the bridges were built of stone. Numerous emperors sought to improve transportation out of the city with additional bridges. Most likely the earliest of bridges was the wooden structure of the Pons (bridge) Sublicius, spanning the Tiber just below Insula Tiberina.

Interestingly the POMS Sublicius retained its wooden material even at a later time, when stone was the principal medium of construction. This was probably for religious reasons. Insula Tiberina was important to Rome, and thus two bridges connected it to the two banks-the Pons Fabricius on the east and the Pons Cestius on the west. The Pons Aemilius which connected the island to the Pons Sublicius was the first such bridge of stone. It was built around the middle of the 2nd century B.C., marking a change in Roman engineering. Only one other span was notable from the days of the Republic, the Pans Milvius, or the Milvian Bridge, several miles to the north of Rome along the Via Flaminia.

» Governance

In 509 B.C., the Roman kings were ousted in favor of the CONSULS, the SENATE and the people of Rome. For the next 478 years the Eternal City was the very heart of the Republic, from which Rome launched its campaigns of expansion in Italy and throughout the Mediterranean. Here, too, the ambitious plotted schemes that came to fruition in the 1st century B.C. with CIVIL WARS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND TRIUMVIRATES raging off and on from 49 to 31 B.C. In that final year, at ACTIUM, Octavian defeated Marc ANTONY. Within four years he was called Augustus, and the Roman Empire was born. As PRINCEPS, or first man of the state, Augustus undertook the task of transforming Rome into the foremost city of the world.

The Augustan policy of imperial aggrandizement was the end result of careful thought and planning. Rome, with its many entertainments, glorious structures and tributes to Roman triumphs, was to be a model, the standard by which every provincial community would be measured. The IMPERIAL CULT was declared officially to be the cult of Roma et Augustus; as the emperors were to be worshipped, their abode was to be held in awe.

With the rise of the Empire, the city was divided into 14 smaller regiones, replacing the four that were founded by Servius Tullius many centuries before; they were placed under the care of a magistrate, who, in turn, also looked after the so-called via or districts within each of the regiones. They included all of Rome within the Servian Walls, but also went beyond them, even across the Tiber. The 14 regiones were I Porta Capena, II Caelimontium, III Isis et Serapis, IV Templum Pacis, V Esquiliae, VI Alta Semita, VII Via Lata, VII Forum Romanum, IX Circus Flaminius, X Palatium, XI Circus Maximus, XII Piscina Publica, XIII Aventinus, XIV Trans Tiberim.

A new system of local division could do little to ease the growing congestion in the streets or the constant threat of fire. Therefore, over the entire city administration the emperor appointed the praefectus urbi, the PREFECT OF THE CITY, charged with trying cases within Rome and with maintaining the peace, aided by the URBAN COHORTS. In cases of emergency he could also use the VIGILES, the firefighters in the capital, formed to contain any serious conflagration before it could spread, or even the dreaded PRAETORIAN GUARD. The Praetorians were at first not kept in Rome, but from the time of TIBERIUS and his Praetorian prefect SEJANUS, the cohorts were stationed in the Castra Praetoria, east of the Viminal Hill on the Agger of Servius.

» Living Conditions

But these efforts fell short of alleviating the terrible conditions of life. According to the Monumentum Ancyranum, which contains Augustus' Res Gestae, the number of the Plebeian class at Rome in the time of Augustus was 320,000, not counting women and children. When added to the senatorial and Equestrian classes, the total free population would have been nearly 700,000. In addition, the slaves of the city probably equalled the general population, bloating the tally to well over a million. And Rome was also the destination of many foreign travelers. Some estimates have placed the combined population at 1.5 million.

Little wonder that all carts and wheeled traffic was forbidden in the city during the day. The only exception was the carpentum or small cart used by the VESTAL VIRGINS or the ladies of the court. Foot traffic was more than the streets could bear, as Rome acquired a lasting reputation for dirtiness and squalor, borne out by its housing. Two kinds of structure characterized Roman living. The wealthy occupied the domus, a large suite or inner-city villa. Frequently they were found on the more fashionable parts of the Hills of Rome. In marked contrast were the insulae. These tall apartment buildings housed the middle and lower classes, packing them into dirty little rooms as unsanitary as they were susceptible to fire.

Ironically, the fire of 64 A.D., in which nearly two-thirds of the city was burned, brought some relief. To Nero's credit, he ordered that in the future careful consideration be taken before any rebuilding could proceed. A proper code was instituted in construction: Stone was to be the preferred medium of building, with an eye toward fire resistance and a height limit. Streets were widened and the aqueducts leading into the city were refurbished and improved to provide enough water. Unfortunately, Nero's obsession with his Domus Aurea, or Golden House, overshadowed such genuinely progressive steps.

The value of Nero's brutally practical program was seen over the next few centuries, for there was no end to the ballooning population. If there had been over one million in the 1st century A.D., then the total number of inhabitants had no doubt surpassed two million by the 2nd century. Inevitably the city grew beyond the old Servian Walls, especially into the Campus Martius, where Hadrianic apartment complexes have been excavated. In the late 3rd century A.D. Emperor AURELIAN constructed a new wall, this time setting the boundaries of Rome beyond the Tiber.

» Building/Early History

Besides population, another major factor in the crowding was the incessant series of mammoth building programs. Rome, from the time of Augustus, was subjected to constant renovation and rebuilding. From the Capitoline to the Aventine hills to the Campus Martius and beyond, all the way to the Vatican Hill, emperors erected arches, columns, baths, circuses, palaces, temples (to themselves, gods or predecessors), theaters, basilicas and forums. Everywhere there was a monument, so many in fact that free spaces were wholly consumed. And yet these architectural feats made Rome the envy of the world.

Augustus set the tone. He declared that he found Rome a city of bricks and left it a metropolis of marble. With the help of Marcus Vipsanius AGRIPPA this boast was true. The status of the Eternal City was celebrated while the broad policies of Julius Caesar were completed. With the TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX and TEMPLE OF MARS ULTOR finished, the famed FORUM ROMANUM was altered significantly. Further, the CAMPUS MARTIUS to the north was discovered as a viable part of the city, largely due to Marcus Agrippa. There one could find theaters, the PANTHEON, the Baths of Agrippa and the Basilica of Neptune. A partial list of Augustus' other marvels in stone would include: the FORUM AUGUSTUM, the CURIA JULIA, the BASILICA JULIA, the TEMPLE OF Divus JULIUS and the Theater of Marcellus.

Tiberius initiated little construction, in keeping with his own austere nature. He did finish the Augustan projects and ordered the creation of the TEMPLE OF DIVUS AUGUSTUS. Of note was the DOMUS TIBERIANA, the first great imperial palace on the Palatine, a plush home considered inadequate by GAIUS CALIGULA. That emperor not only upgraded the Domus but had the curious habit of raising temples to himself. He also allowed Isis to have a place of worship on the Campus Martius, and then desecrated the Temple of Divus Augustus by placing a bridge over it to connect the palace on the Palatine with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitol. His successor CLAUDIUS focused on those imperial efforts that would most benefit the city. Aside from improving the harbor at Ostia to make the Tiber more accessible, he reformed the water system. The aqueducts at Rome had always been impressive, providing fresh water from the early days of the Republic. Their care was maintained by the censor and the AEDILES; later Qaudius created the office of curator aquarum, or head of the water board.

Aside from the Golden House and the reconstruction of Rome, both springing from the fire of 64, Nero spent much time and money on buildings of a suitably grand scope, such as the CIRCUS Gai et Neronis and the Neronian Baths. His original DOMUS TRANSITORIA, linking the Palatine and the Esquiline hills, was a disappointment for it could not encompass Nero's vision of a proper home. The fire made the replacement, the Domus Aurea, possible, but that palace was appallingly expensive, as was his colossal statue of himself, a typically excessive gesture that lent his name to the FLAVIANS' gigantic amphitheater the COLOSSEUM.

Life in Rome began well under Nero, for he had able advisors and was stable and moderate under their guidance. With the death of Burrus in 62 and the retirement of SENECA, a reign of terror descended upon the city, made uglier even than that of Tiberius and Gaius Caligula because of Nero's obsession with art and music. The sociopolitical system was falling apart by 65, when elements of the Senate and the depleted nobility joined forces in the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY. Although crushed, the plot signalled the eventual downfall of Nero, who was ousted in 68 A.D. What followed was a bloody civil war in 69, which ended with the conquest of the city by legions supporting VESPASIAN. Damage to Rome was extensive, especially on the Capitoline, where a siege had taken place. The chaos in Rome mirrored the situation in the provinces, with rebellions in Germany and in Palestine.

Vespasian and the Flavian regime arrived in 70, and a reconstruction and return to prosperity were effected. The Forum Pacis, or Forum of Vespasian, and the Colosseum provided evidence of civic health, while pointing to the public spirit of administration. Care for the specific needs of the city continued under Titus and Domitian. The Baths of Titus gave the Romans yet another sumptuous watering place. Domitian built everywhere in the city, including the FORUM TRANSITORIUM, the Temple of Gens Flavia (the Flavian Temple), Temple of Minerva and the Odeum. He also erected a magnificent palace, the DOMUS FLAVIA, a building that would satisfy the needs of emperors for years to come.

Considered harsh and even autocratic, Domitian was assassinated in 96 A.D. Nerva ruled for only two years but adopted Trajan, thus beginning the glorius years of the 2nd century A.D., when Rome would attain its fullest stature. In many ways the Golden Age of Rome was not so much an age of municipal opulence but of long-term bureaucratic and artistic stability. Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and, in part, Marcus Aurelius ran an Empire that was at its peak. Rome reflected this.

Trajan was the founder of his Baths, the FORUM TRAIANI and innovative market, designed by APOLLODORUS of Damascus. HADRIAN brought both a Hellenism and an internationalism to the throne. Temples to his predecessor, his mother-in-law, his niece MATIDIA and Venus were sprinkled throughout the city. Loyal to tradition, he rebuilt Agrippa's Pantheon and gave no credit to himself but honored Agrippa. The reign of Hadrian, however, trumpeted an increasing universalism that was offset only briefly by ANTONINUS PIUS. Hadrian built his dream villa, TIVOLI, outside of Rome, in nearby Tibur. Antoninus Pius spent little money on the city, as did Marcus Aurelius. The former centered his energies on Italy and on the maintenance of self-government, while the latter faced plagues, political rebellion and the terrible MARCOMANNIC WARS. Such concerns rendered a beautification program impractical.

One result of the era of sound imperial succession was a tendency toward centralization, especially from the time of Hadrian. Not surprisingly, the provinces now looked even more eagerly for the city to provide leadership and guidance. The reign of Commodus was a disaster, and his death touched off a bizarre episode in 193, when the Praetorian Guard auctioned off the throne to the highest bidder, DIDIUS JULIANUS, a sale that many felt epitomized the social decay of the times.

» History from 193

Septimius SEVERUS then marched into Rome with his Pannonian legions and, after winning a protracted civil war, settled down to the business of running the state. Rome to him was a revered city, much as it had been for Augustus. The title URBS SACRA, or sacred city, was used to describe it. Romans paid no direct taxes and, unquestionably and for one of the last times, total power rested in Rome and in its institutions. Severus' son CARACALLA took the dramatic step of granting full citizenship to all of the inhabitants of the Empire with the Constitutio Antoniniana, an act that would serve to dilute the special status of those who lived in Rome.

Throughout the early centuries of the Roman Empire, additional bridges were erected. The Augustan-era bridge was the Pons Agrippae, perhaps created by Marcus Agrippa and positioned in the north of the Campus Martius. To provide easy access to the Circus Gai et Neronis, Emperor Nero ordered the building of the Pons Neronis, or Pons Neronianus, at the eastern edge of the Campus Martius, pointing in the direction of the Vatican Hill, where the circus was located. Nearby, Hadrian put the Pons Aelius, the bridge that would lead right to his mausoleum, now known as the Castel San Angelo. Two more bridges were built in the 3rd century: the Pons Aurelius Antoninus, or Pons Aurelius, established in all likelihood by Caracalla, and the Pons Probi, built by Probus.

The assassination of Caracalla in 217 brought the dawn of a new age for the city. For much of the 3rd century, the Empire was ravaged by barbarian invasions and usurping generals. Two vital developments contributed to the destruction of Rome's imperial preeminence. First, the emperors were frequently away from the city on military campaigns and getting themselves killed by other generals or in combat with the Goths or Persians. There would then be a vacuum in the political realm. Second, when an emperor did succeed in carving out a place of relative martial security it became necessary to keep the entire process of government travelling with him, as was done by GALLIENUS. Rome survived unchanged for a time, held in reverence because of its lingering prestige and because of the need for any new emperor to find allies in the old senatorial establishment.

The Roman Empire C. 117 A.D.

Several developments in the city itself during this period should be observed. PHILIP THE ARAB celebrated the millennial anniversary of the founding of Rome with the Ludi Saeculares in 247. In the early part of the reign of AURELIAN the JUTHUNGINE WAR made the city nervous for its safety from barbarian attack. Aurelian consequently built his wall. So it went, with soldier-emperors trying to stage a recovery. When it came, its very nature would be so momentous that Rome would be unable to withstand it.

In 284, DIOCLETIAN became emperor. He recognized the old system of governing as hopelessly inadequate, given the sheer size of the Empire, and that one person was incapable of governing such a domain, especially from Rome. Diocletian imitated Tiberius and began to travel to the various provinces. A headquarters was established at Nicomedia, and the Praetorian Guard was downgraded to the rank of the garrison of Rome. New reforms were now instigated, not just for Rome but for the entire Empire. Diocletian ended the division between imperial and senatorial provinces, placing all of them under his control. Italy lost all of its privileges, though Rome was allowed to keep many rights and was directed by the Senate. By the terms of the tetrarchy established by Diocletian, the two Augusti and two Caesars did not live in Rome but in widely separated parts of the East and the West. The closest capital to Rome in the tetrarchy was Mediolanum (Milan). Diocletian did not visit Rome, in fact, until 303. Two years later he and his colleague MAXIMIAN retired, as GALERIUS and CONSTA-TIUS I CHLORUS ascended to the rank of Augusti. Rome was again overshadowed.

Barbarian Penetration of Europe, c. 400 A.D.

Then in 306 the opportunity seemingly presented itself for the city to regain its honor. Maximian's son Maxentius resented being passed over as one of the Caesars, found support among the Romans and the Praetorian Guard, and was raised up as a rival emperor. For six years (306-312) Rome enjoyed a return to glory. At the battle of MILVIAN BRIDGE in 312, Maxentius was defeated by CONSTANTINE the Great, who would go on to conquer all of the Empire.

Constantine built baths, smaller than those of Diocletian, and an ARCH in Rome, but his long-term policy neglected the city. The Praetorian Guard was disbanded ruthlessly and its camp, the Castra Praetoria, was destroyed, while CONSTANTINOPLE at the Bosporus between East and West was developed as the New Rome. All that remained to the Romans was the Senate and the city's marvelous art and architecture. The 5th century brought little promise of better things, for so weakened had the Empire become in the West that in 410 ALARIC and the Visigoths captured and sacked Rome. Forty-five years later GEISERIC and the Vandals sailed from Africa and ravaged the city once more.

At the same time, a religious revolution was in process. Christianity had long been persecuted in the Empire, but Rome attracted Christian leaders and their disciples. Peter was executed, traditionally, on the Vatican Hill. That site was ever after considered the center of Christianity in Rome, and the bishop of Rome came to exercise ascendancy over the sees of the West when the office came to be known as the papacy. The EDICT OF MILAN, issued in 312 by Constantine the Great, granted Christianity a free hand. While Constantinople may have been the Christian city, Rome was eventually known as the city of churches, and numerous basilicas and shrines were built to honor martyrs. Domination by the Western bishops brought Rome's pope into direct conflict with the patriarchs of Constantinople and Alexandria, a disagreement that would last well into the Middle Ages and, in fact, continues today.

By the 5th century, the Senate was divided into Christians and pagans, the former holding the majority. But the pagans were ardent and formed an intellectual core that was not easily destroyed. With the brilliant oratory of SYMMACHUS, the final hopes of paganism fell before AMBROSE, the brutal bishop of Milan, and before THEODOSIUS i, who won the battle of FRIGIDUS in 394. Within 100 years of Constantine's edict, Christianity had brought an end to a cult of worship that had lasted for over 1,000 years.

Intellectualism was not dead, however. The absence of the emperors with their weighty administrations freed the still active Senate and allowed that body to function with a remarkable independence with respect to Rome's affairs. The Senate encouraged the pursuit of culture and the mind, even though many cultivated the patronage of the often strict Christian leaders. Symmachus, AVIENUS, MACROBIUS and other writers and orators found a receptive and still sophisticated audience.

Founded by Romulus, Rome was, at least technically, last ruled by a Roman in 476-the appropriately named Romulus Augustulus. He fell in that year to the German Odoacer, who was himself overcome by the powerful Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, in 493. A succession of masters would follow. There remained, however, the incalculable legacy of Rome to the world and to history.

Ancient sources on the city of Rome are extensive. Livy is extremely important; others that should be consulted: Ammianus Marcellinus, Dio Cassius, Suetonius, Tacitus' Annals and History, Pliny the Elder and Younger, as well as Frontinus, Vitruvius, Horace and Juvenal. See subject index for major entries related to Rome included in this volume.

¤ ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS (fl. late 5th century A.D.) Generally considered to be the last emperor of the Western Empire, ruling from October 475 to September 476 A.D. Romulus Augustulus (which means "little Augustus") was the son of the MAGISTER MILITUM, ORESTES, who had been appointed to his post by Emperor Julius NEPOS. In August 475, Orestes used discontent among the Germanic troops in Italy to depose Nepos, forcing him to flee to Dalmatia. On October 31, he invested his son Romulus with the purple. Although the Eastern Empire, under Zeno, refused to recognize him, Romulus was de facto ruler of the West by virtue of the military and political power of his father. Orestes failed to hold his own troops, however, especially after refusing their demand to be settled on Italian soil. They found a new champion in Orestes' lieutenant, ODOACER, who besieged Orestes at Ticinum. Odoacer put the magister militum to death in August 476. Entering Ravenna, he deposed Romulus a month later. Surprisingly, the friendless monarch was not only allowed to live but was also given an estate in Campania (at Misenum) with a generous annual pension. Surviving until the 6th century, he was a living testimony to the defunct imperial system in the West.

¤ ROXOLANI A wild people who originally occupied large stretches of land in the southern region of Russia, especially to the north of the related tribes of the IAZYGES. Starring in the 2nd century B.C., they were pushed into the territory of the lazyges by advancing SARMATIANS, driving the lazyges toward the west, while the Roxolani occupied the lands of the Crimea and the Don. By the 1st century A.D. they had settled on the Danubian frontier, where they were viewed by the Romans as part of the broader Sarmatian menace. In 62-63 A.D. PLAUTIUS SILVANUS suppressed a widespread revolt along the BLACK SEA among the Sarmatian peoples, which probably were the Roxolani. They were the leading force in the Danubian troubles of 67-68, pushing across the river and necessitating stern military reprisals from Rome. Infrequent flareups marked their relations with Rome, although their ties with the lazyges farther to the west were always a concern to the Romans. As part of his general operations against the Sarmatians, Marcus Aurelius made war upon the Roxolani from 179 to 180 A.D., claiming the title Sarmaticus in the process. With the rise of the GOTHS in the 3rd century, the Roxolani were amalgamated into the ranks of the barbarian hosts that would ravage much of the Roman Empire.

¤ RUBELLIUS PLAUTUS (d. 62 A.D.) Son of JULIA (5, daughter of Drusus the Younger), Plautus was, with NERO, one of the closest blood relatives to Augustus in the latter half of the 1st century A.D. Out of fear of Nero, and because of his own Stoic beliefs, Plautus led a secluded, blameless life, but in 55 his name was mentioned in connection with conspiracies against Nero and by 60 he was considered a successor to the emperor. This disquieted Nero, who ordered Plautus to retire to Asia, where Plautus moved with his wife Antistia and a few friends. Finally, in 62, Nero ordered his death, quipping when Plautus' head was brought before him, "Why did no one tell me Plautus had such a big nose?"

¤ RUBICON Small river in the north of Italy south of Ravenna, in the region known as the ager gallicus; it rises in the Apennines and flows northeast to the Adriatic. The importance of the Rubicon was its role as boundary marker, during the Republic, for Italy and Gallia Cisalpina. It assumed a permanent place in history in 49 B.C., when Julius Caesar, at the head of his army, crossed over into Italy in direct violation of the Senate's orders.

¤ RUBRA SAXA Italian site in Etruria. Meaning "red rocks," Rubra Saxa was on the Via Flaminia and indicated the nearness of a traveler to Rome. In 312 A.D., it was the site of a skirmish between the armies of CONSTANTINE the Great and MAXENTIUS.

¤ RUFINA, POMPONIA (d. 213 A.D.) One of the four VESTAL VIRGINS put to death in 213 for impurity. Pomponia Rufina was buried alive, according to custom. See also CRESCENTIA, CANNUTIA; LAETA, CLODIA; SEVERA, AURELIA.

¤ RUFINUS, FLAVIUS (d. 395 A.D.) Praetorian prefect of the East from 392 to 395 A.D. and the most powerful figure in the early reign of Emperor Arcadius. Rufinus came from Gallia Aquitania and was known for his intelligence and his devout Christian ways. Rising through the ranks in Constantinople, he became increasingly important to THEODOSIUS i, serving as MAGISTER OFFICIORUM in 388. Consul in 392, he was then appointed Praetorian prefect. Systematically he destroyed all political opponents, maneuvering himself into an excellent position to bid for the throne. Upon the accession of Arcadius in 395, Rufinus encountered political opposition from EUTROPIUS (2), the chamberlain, and STILICHO, a MAGISTER MILITUM. First Eutropius blocked the marriage of Rufinus' daughter to Arcadius, securing a wedding with Eudoxia, a child of one of Rufinus' victims. Then Stilicho, presumably on the orders of a jealous Rufinus, sent back to Constantinople a large part of his army. Soldiers from this force then murdered the prefect in November of 395. Rufinus did build a monastery and shrine but was noted for his lobbying of anti-pagan legislation. Despite his obviously zealous Christianity, he was on good terms with the pagan LIBANIUS and had met with the orator SYMMACHUS.

¤ RUFINUS, VULCACIUS (fl. 4th century A.D.) Praetorian prefect of Italy, Illyricum and Africa from 365 to 368, and a noble Roman pagan. Consul in 347, he moved on to Illyricum and then Gaul in 354. His career was briefly endangered because of his being the uncle of Callus Caesar, by his sister, Galla. In 365, he was named Praetorian prefect by Valentinian I, despite his old age, replacing Claudius Mamertinus.

¤ RUFINUS OF AQUILEIA, TYRANNIUS (c. 345-410 A.D.) Christian scholar and monk who was a specialist in translating Greek theological texts into Latin. Italian by birth, Rufinus was educated at Rome where he became a close friend of Jerome. Pursuing a monastic life he journeyed to the East around 371, visiting Egypt and studying in Alexandria. Arriving in Jerusalem, he established a monastery there before returning to Rome in 397. Living out his years in Aquileia, Rufinus made translations from the Greek of numerous important works, including the writings of such Christians as Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, Eusebius of Caesarea and especially Origen. His adherence to the teachings of Origen, even after Origen's condemnation as a heretic, caused a major rift between him and Jerome, who disagreed bitterly with the unorthodox nature of Origenism. This quarrel was never settled. Rufinus died after fleeing to southern Italy during Alaric's invasion.

¤ RUFUS, BASSAEUS (fl. 2nd century A.D.) Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD under Emperor Marcus Aurelius, from circa 169 to 172. Rufus was singular as a prefect because of his humble origins and his apparent lack of education. Born into poverty, he nevertheless attained membership in the Equestrians (EQUITES) and held the order's highest post. By his own admission he did not know languages but was considered a good man in other respects.

¤ RUFUS, C. VALGIUS (fl. late 1st century B.C.) Consul in 12 B.C. and a writer during the Augustan Age (27 B.C.-14 A.D.). Rufus had a number of literary interests, including epigrams, a study of herbs, elegies, and a Latin translation of the rhetorical work of Apollodorus of Pergamum.

¤ RUFUS, CLUVIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) CONSUL in 66 A.D. and noted historian who for many years was a favorite of Emperor Nero. He was used in 67 as the imperial herald, announcing the next songs that Nero would perform. Appointed one of the governors of Spain, he supported the cause of Vitellius in 69, being acquitted of charges of planning to usurp the throne by virtue of his eloquence and reputation. As a writer, Rufus centered himself on a history of Nero and the Civil War of 69 A.D. Written with accuracy, his work was used by the historian Tacitus in his Histories and probably served as a source for Plutarch and Suetonius.

¤ RUFUS, QUINTUS CURTIUS (fl. mid-lst century A.D.?) A historian of whom little is known. Considerable questions exist with respect to his own era. He has been dated to both the Augustan and the Flavian ages, but quite possibly lived and wrote in the middle of the 1st century A.D. Rufus' writings were highly imitative of Livy, and similar to the style of Seneca, which was in vogue in the time of Nero, and his affected rhetorical manner was typical of the Silver Age of Roman literature. His 10 volume History of Alexander relied heavily upon Greek sources. Books 1 and 2 as well as parts of the others were lost.

¤ RUFUS, FAENIUS (d. 65 A.D.) PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD from 62-65 A.D. and the successor of the great Prefect, Burrus. Rufus had the misfortune of being appointed as co-prefect of the Guard with Ofonius TIGELLINUS. He had made a reputation for himself as Prefect of the Grain (from 55-62), as an honest and decent leader. The post was given to him to hide the rise of Tigellinus, who completely dominated the Prefecture, appealing to Nero's debauched lifestyle. Tigellinus spared no opportunity to attack his colleague as a lover of Agrippina the Younger, Nero's mother, or as a servant of her vengenace. Having lost all power, Rufus joined the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY in 65. When it was uncovered, he tried at first to play the role of inquisitor. He was discovered and put to death.

¤ RUFUS, GAIUS MUSONIUS (c. 30-101 A.D.) A Stoic philosopher from Volsinii. Acquiring a reputation as a Stoic, Rufus became the teacher of numerous philosophers, especially Epictetus and Dio Chrysostom. A friend of Rubellius Plautus, he followed him into exile in Asia Minor when Nero banished the courtier, c. 60. Returning to Rome after Plautus' death, Rufus again had to leave Rome as part of the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY of 65, living until 68 in Gyaros. The capital was safe when Galba became emperor, but under the Flavians he went into exile again by command of VESPASIAN. Through the liberal policies of Titus, Rufus was allowed to journey back to Rome, where he died sometime in 101.

¤ RUGILA (d. 433 A.D.) King of the Huns during the early 5th century A.D., who, with his brother MANDIUCH, controlled two of the three main clans of the Hunnic people. Rugila received tribute from Theodosius II in return for curbing his ambitions toward the Eastern Empire. He also probably supported Theodosius in his war against the GOTHS, receiving a slice of Pannonia for his reward.

¤ RUSTICUS, JUNIUS (fl. mid-2nd century A.D.) A Stoic philosopher and one of the main instructors of the future emperor, MARCUS AURELIUS. His influence on the emperor was considerable, earning for him both a second consulship in 162 (the first having been in 133) and a prefectship of the city. Upon his death Marcus asked the Senate to erect statues in his honor. He was, as well, an important advisor.

¤ RUTILIUS GALLICUS (Quintus Julius Cordinus Gaius) (fl. 1st century A.D.) Consul circa 70 and 85 A.D. and governor of Germania Inferior under Vespasian. During the period of 75-78 he launched an effective campaign against the BRUCTERI. He was honored by Domitian and died sometime around 92.