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¤ SABINA, VIBIA (d. after 128 A.D.) Empress from 117 to 136, the wife of HADRIAN. Sabina was the daughter of L. Vibius and Matidia, and granddaughter of MARCIANA, the sister of Emperor TRAJAN. Although Trajan apparently did not approve, Empress Plotina, in 100, organized Hadrian's marriage to Sabina. Hadrian was thus positioned perfectly to succeed Trajan as emperor and, in 117, Sabina became empress. Although she was made Augusta in 128, Sabina had a reputation for faithlessness. Hadrian reportedly ousted Septicius Clarus, Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD, and Suetonius Tranquillus, an imperial secretary, because of their overly familiar attitude toward the empress. He supposedly once said that had he been a private citizen he would have sent her away. However, upon her death, sometime after 128, she was given full honors. There was a rumor that she had been poisoned.

¤ SABINIANS Members of one of the two important schools of LAW in Rome during the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. The Sabinians took their name from Masurius SABINUS but later were known as Cassians after Sabinus' student, CASSIUS LONGINUS. Sabinian views were based on the teachings of Gaius Ateius CAPITO, Sabinus' instructor and an adherent of conservatism in the reign of Augustus (27 B.C.-14 A.D.). Among the few characteristics discernable in the attitude of the Sabinians was a legal conservatism reflecting their founder. In opposition to the Sabinians were the PROCULEANS. A rivalry between the schools lasted well into the 2nd century, when they were united. The most famous head of the Sabinians was Salvius Julianus.

¤ SABINUS, CAELIUS (fl. late 1st century A.D.) Leading jurist; consul in 69 with Flavius SABINUS. He was a member of the Sabinian school of law and probably a contemporary of Pegasus. Both practiced with success under the Flavians. See also PROCULEANS; SABINIANS.

¤ SABINUS, CORNELIUS (d. c. 41 A. D.) TRIBUNE of the PRAETORIAN GUARD and, with Cassius CHAEREA, one of the ringleaders in the plot to assassinate Emperor GAIUS CALIGULA in 41 A.D. Among the conspirators Sabinus was least known and was overshadowed by the prefect of the Guard and his more bitter comrade. Nevertheless, he had a direct hand in the murder, later committing suicide when Chaerea was dead.

¤ SABINUS, FLAVIUS (d. 69 A.D.) Brother of Emperor VESPASIAN. Sabinus had a long career in government, serving as legate in MOESIA from around 49 to 56 A.D. and as PREFECT OF THE CITY (praefectus urbi) during the reign of NERO (c. 61). In 69, in an act of appeasement to Vespasian, Emperor OTHO appointed Sabinus once more as prefect of the city. Later that year, he was summoned by Emperor VITELLIUS to negotiate that ruler's hopeful abdication, but soldiers in ROME refused to accept Vitellius's resignation. Sabinus, with his friends, was besieged on the capitol and fought it out in the TEMPLE OF JUPITER. Captured, Sabinus was executed at the feet of Vitellius. His death was a rallying cry for the Flavians, who captured the city a short time later.

¤ SABINUS, JULIUS (d. 79 A.D.) Leader of the Germanic tribe of the Lingones, who in 70 A.D. claimed descent from Julius CAESAR and began a revolt. Quickly defeated, he fled to his estates before disappearing for nine years with his wife Peponila. Captured in 79, he was executed with his family.

¤ SABINUS, MASURIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) A student of Gaius Ateius CAPITO and an eminent jurist. Sabinus possibly came from Verona, studying law in Rome. He achieved such notoriety that the school of law founded by Capito came to be known by his name (SABINIANS). Among the works of Sabinus was a study of the lus CIVILE, used by subsequent jurists and thus influential in shaping the Digest. Written in three books, the treatise was called Ad Sabinum.

¤ SABINUS, NYMPHIDIUS (d. 69 A.D.) Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD from 65 to 69 A.D.. Sabinus was the son of a freedwoman of considerable beauty who had worked in the imperial court and claimed that he was born of Emperor GAIUS CALIGULA. Known for his height and forbidding looks, Sabinus entered the LEGIONS, eventually holding a command over auxiliaries in PANNONIA. Admitted to the Praetorian Guard as a TRIBUNE, he made himself useful to NERO and the corrupt Prefect TIGELLINUS, especially during the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY in 65. With the consularia ornamenta, Sabinus was made co-prefect of the Guard with Tigellinus. He proved a deft political manipulator, staying alive until 68, when Tigellinus became ill and Nero fell from power. Once Tigellinus was removed, Sabinus found the patronage of the new Emperor GALBA potentially profitable, promising in the claimant's name a hefty DONATIVUM in return for the support of the Guard. Disappointments soon confronted him as he realized that his position was not to be improved with the new administration. Overestimating his control of Praetorians, and probably with an eye on the throne, he marched into the Castra Praetoria, asking their help. The soldiers of the Guard not only rejected his offer but also killed him. This murder, unrewarded by Galba, was later an element in the unhappiness of the Guard with their new master.

¤ SABINUS, OPPIUS (d. 85 A.D.) Governor of MOESIA in 85 A.D.; the first of the Roman officials to confront the onslaught of the Dacians under DECEBALUS. He failed totally and was killed in battle as the Dacians ravaged much of the province.

¤ SABINUS, POPPAEUS (d. 35 A.D.) Grandfather of Poppaea, the wife of NERO from 62 to 65 A.D.; a highly successful imperial governor throughout the reign of TIBERIUS (14-37 A.D.). CONSUL in 9 A.D., Sabinus was made legate in MOESIA by AUGUSTUS, probably in 11. Viewed by Tiberius as what TACITUS called competent and not more than competent, his services were retained by the new emperor, who added the governorships of MACEDONIA and Achaea as well. His tenure was extremely long, and he administered Moesia for 24 years. Only his death in 35 ended his term of office. In 26 he won a notable victory over the Thracians, receiving a triumphal insignia. Sabinus was typical of Tiberius' appointed officials, capable of fulfilling their duties but not in a manner that was overly skillful or remarkable.

¤ SABINUS, PUBLIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD during the brief reign of VITELLIUS in 69 A.D. Sabinus was appointed prefect with Julius Priscus as part of the newly created Praetorians. He had been a mere prefect of an auxiliary cohort, probably in Germania, owing his promotion to the patronage of Fabius VALENS, one of Vitellius' important generals. However, he developed a friendship with CAECINA ALIENUS, another legate, and when Caecina deserted the Vitellian camp, Sabinus was removed from his post and briefly imprisoned. He was succeeded by Alfenus VARUS.

¤ SABINUS, QUINTUS TITURIUS (d. 54 B.C.) Legate in the army of Julius CAESAR during the GALLIC WARS. Sabinus was used against the Belgae in 57 B.C. before assuming command of three LEGIONS in 56 and defeating the Venelli in northwestern Gaul. Two years later, at ADUATUCA he was trapped and killed, with Cotta, by Ambiorix.

¤ SABINUS, TITUS FLAVIUS (d. 84 A.D.) Husband to his cousin, Flavia Julia' (7), daughter of Emperor TITUS. Although Julia was known to be involved with her uncle, DOMITIAN, Sabinus married her anyway, sharing the consulship of 82 with Domitian, then emperor. Perhaps to remove him as an inconvenience or because of the banishment of DIO COCCEIANUS, Sabinus was put to death.

¤ SABIS The Sambre River of today's northern France and Belgium; site of a military engagement in July 57 B.C. between Julius CAESAR and the NERVII, the strong Gallic tribe of Gallia Belgica. Using surprise, the Nervii struck hard at Caesar's outnumbered legions; only by his sheer force of will was victory secured for the Romans. Haranguing his troops, especially the reliable X Legion, Caesar drove them on, eventually smashing the tribes so completely that the Nervii virtually disappeared as a nation. They had lost nearly 60,000 men, while the Roman losses proved relatively light. The battle of Sabis ensured the conquest of Gallia Belgica.

¤ SABRATHA Coastal city in North Africa to the west of Lepcis Magna and Oea, in the region of TRIPOLITANIA. Smaller than Lepcis and less favored by the imperial government, Sabratha nevertheless was able to develop its resources. Archaeologically the site was important for its 2nd-century-A.D. theater, designed along lines similar to the one in Lepcis, although this one was larger. There were also temples, a basilica, a CURIA and a forum.

¤ SACRAMENTUM The oath of allegiance taken by members of the legions. The Sacramentum began in the earliest of the Roman formations, when the troops swore to the standards to remain loyal for the length of a campaign. After the reforms of Marius, the pledge served for the entire period of service. Under the emperors, however, each legion took the Sacramentum to the PRINCEPS, in recognition that he was the supreme ruler of Rome. Each January 1 and on the anniversary of the emperor's accession, the Sacramentum was readministered. According to tradition, the Sacramentum was taken by a legate and his tribunes, who then asked for it from the cohorts of the legion. One legionary was selected, reciting the oath, with his companions replying "idem in me" ("the same with me").

¤ SACRED WAY See VIAE.

¤ SACROVIR, JULIUS (d. 21 A.D.) King of the Gallic AEDUI, who in 21 A.D. led an ineffective revolt against ROME, finding support only from within the Aedui and elements of the Treveri. Joined by Julius Florus, a Romanized Gaul, Sacrovir had around 40,000 followers when attacked by Gaius Silius and Visellius Varro, the legates of Germania Superior and Inferior. Defeated in battle, Sacrovir fled and later killed himself.

¤ SADDUCEES One of the leading Jewish religious movements, from the Hasmonaean Revolt until the fall of the Great TEMPLE OF JERUSALEM (c. 166 B.C.-70 A.D.). The Sadducees probably emerged as a legitimate element of JUDAISM after the Hasmonaean uprising. They believed in the sanctity of the Pentateuch, that only those laws actually written down were to be followed. Any others, especially oral traditional laws, were not valid. Further, the Sadducees held that fate had no place in mortal affairs and that humanity decided its own course.

These views put them in direct opposition to the PHARISEES, who preached oral law and stressed the role of fate. Their fight with the Pharisees, bitter and violent at times, drew in as well the priest-kings of the Hasmonaeans, who derived their power from oral tradition. Consequently, the Sadducees enjoyed little political influence and even less popular appeal. Through an agreement with the Pharisees they were permitted to serve as priests in the Great Temple, eventually having several of their number named high priest, most notably Caiaphas, presider over the interview of Jesus. The Temple thus served as their main source of power. After its destruction in 70 A.D., the Sadducees could not survive the resulting collapse of structured Judaism, dying out over the next centuries.

¤ SALACIA Minor and obscure Roman deity affiliated with NEPTUNE, perhaps as his wife or consort. Salacia was probably the goddess of springing water (salire means "jump").

¤ SALARIAN WAY See VIAE.

¤ SALII The "leapers," a priestly college in Rome dedicated to MARS. Founded probably by King Numa but developed under King Tullus Hostilius, the Salii were actually two groups, the Salii Palatini and the Salii Agonenses or Collini. The former were connected to Mars, while the latter were once affiliated with Quirinus. Both, however, placed great importance in their ceremonies on the ancilia or holy shields. Although the Salii were to be found in towns throughout Italia, in Rome there were 12 members, all Patricians, whose parents were both living. Their head was a magister, with a praesul (dance leader) and vates (song leader). The normal costume was the war tunic, the tunica pieta, a bronze breastplate, a peaked hat (apex), a military cloak (trabea), a sword at their side, a shield (the ancile) on the left arm and a spear in the right hand. The ancile was an eight-shaped replica of the gift of Jupiter to Numa. As their name would suggest (salire, dance or jump), the Salii performed rituals at certains times of the year. In October they danced at the armilustrium (October 19), closing the campaigning season. March was a busy time for them. On March 11 they presided over the Equiria or horse races in honor of Mars; on the 19 was the purifying of the shields, and on the 23 came the tubilustrium or cleansing of the trumpets. The song of the Salii was called the Carmen Saliare.

¤ SALINATOR, GNAEUS PEDANIUS FUSCUS (d. 136 A.D.) Grandson of Julius SERVIANUS, great-nephew of Emperor HADRIAN and, with his grandfather, a leading candidate to succeed to the throne. The aging emperor seemingly groomed Salinator for the throne, granting him special status at the court. In 136, however, Hadrian changed his mind, choosing Lucius Ceionius COMMODUS (known as Lucius Aelius Caesar). When Servianus and his eighteen-year-old grandson became angry at this, Hadrian forced Servianus to kill himself and put to death Salinator.

¤ SALLUST (Gaius Sallustius Crispus) (c. 86-35/4 B.C.) Roman historian who turned to writing only in his later years. Sallust embarked on a political career through the patronage of the influential Clodius Pulcher, reaching the tribuneship in 52. As was the case with most of Clodius' followers, Sallust was outraged by his death at the hands of Annius MILO. A legate in Syria circa 50 B.C., he returned that year to ROME only to be ousted from the Senate by the CENSORS. Julius CAESAR reinstated him in 49, and Sallust became one of his supporters. After commanding a legion in Illyria, he served in 47 as a negotiator with the troublesome legions in Campania. Along with the rank of praetor in 46 came that of proconsul of AFRICA. His extortionist administration was so bad that in 45 charges were brought against him, only to be halted by Caesar. Nevertheless, the scandal rendered him useless. Sallust retired to his estates, which included the horti Sallusti, or Gardens of Sallust.

As a writer, Sallust proved very influential, for instead of adhering to the models of the ANNALISTS, he tried to find new sources of ingenuity. Turning to the Greeks, especially Thucydides, he followed their style, using conciseness, speechmaking and archaism, while chronicling recent events in the traditional Roman manner, with rhetoric and reflection. This unorthodox brand of writing was highly unique and left a marked impression upon his successors. Sallust authored several notable historical works. A monograph on Catiline relied upon literary sources to recreate the mood of the state at the time, rather than to document dryly the events. Another monograph, covering the Jugurthine War, was more carefully researched, and hence was smoother and objective. Of considerable ambition was his History, composed in five books, detailing the notable happenings from 78 B.C. until his own era. Unlike the first two, it has survived only in fragments.

¤ SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS, GAIUS (d. 20 A.D.) One of the friends and advisors of Emperor AUGUSTUS and a leading figure in the reign of TIBERIUS. He was the grand-nephew of the writer SALLUST; introduced into Roman society with his adoption by the historian, he subsequently pursued a career similar to that of Gaius MAECENAS. He gained great influence in the government without acquiring the routine senatorial position. Thus, while only an Equestrian (EQUITES) Sallustius Crispus far outweighed his friends in the Senate and came to be second only to Maecenas in imperial favor. When Maecenas died in 8 B.C., Sallustius Crispus was the most reliable bearer of secrets. This status was unchanged when Tiberius became emperor. He was not only responsible for the murder of the claimant AGRIPPA POSTUMUS in 14 A.D., but also helped arrest and execute Clemens, Agrippa's masquerading servant. His vast wealth and sumptuous lifestyle were mentioned by the historian TACITUS.

¤ SALLUSTIUS PASSIENUS CRISPUS, GAIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) CONSUL in 27 and 44 A.D. and the adoptive son of Sallustius Crispus; earned a reputation as one of the foremost orators of Rome. He was famed for his comment on Gaius Caligula that "no man had ever been a better slave or a worse master." By marriage to NERO'S aunt, Domitia Lepida, he became associated with the ruling family. Apparently seeking to improve his position even futher, he abandoned Lepida and wed AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER. Aside from starting a vicious enmity between the women, the union brought him little good. He was dead shortly thereafter, his wealth falling into his widow's hands. It was widely reported that Agrippina poisoned him.

¤ SALLUVII Also called the Salyes, a large Gallic tribe living in GALLIA NARBONESIS. Of Ligurian stock, they presented difficulties to the early Roman occupiers of the region. Once subdued, their lands became part of the province of Gallia Narbonensis, and the colony of Aquae Sextiae was established to ensure continued cooperation.

¤ SALONA City resting on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea; capital of the province of ILLYRICUM. Also called Salonae, the city was old but was vigorously developed in the hands of Roman traders (c. 47 B.C.), receiving a colony as well, Colonia Martia Julia Salona, through the patronage of Julius Caesar. From the time of AUGUSTUS, Salona served as the most important city in Illyricum. The legate of the province had his seat there and construction reflected its status. Salona was actually two cities in one, an old community known as urbs vetus and a new one, urbs nova, built just to the east. Urbs vetus had a temple and forum, and an amphitheater capable of holding over 15,000 people. Urbs nova was even larger but was centered on housing and business, with many private homes and several basilicas. Both sectors were walled and connected by a large gate, the Porta Caesarea, erected by Augustus. One of the most successful metropolises in the Roman Empire, Salona was the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian (c. 240 A.D.). When he retired in 305, he took up residence in his palace at nearby SPLIT.

¤ SALONINA (Cornelia Salonina Chrysogone) (d. 268 A.D.) Empress from 254 to 268 and wife of Emperor GALLIENUS from around 249 to 268. She was noted for intellectual and virtuous characteristics, both of which helped her survive the stress of being AUGUSTA at a time when the Roman Empire was facing severe crises and she was facing the pain of her husband's less faithful behavior. Unfortunately, she was murdered with Gallienus at the siege of Mediolanum (Milan).

¤ SALONINUS (Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerianus) (d. 260 A.D.) Son of Emperor GALLIENUS and Empress SALONINA; the youth was first appointed Caesar in 258. Two years later, under the guidance of his mentor Silvanus, and supposedly with the cooperation of the local general, POSTUMUS, Saloninus was elevated to Augustus, or co-emperor, and given command of the Rhine frontier. As Gallienus was away on campaign, the direction of imperial government in the West was ostensibly in the lad's hands, although real decisions were probably left to Silvanus. This proved unfortunate, for Silvanus and Postumus quarreled. A disagreement became violent, and the general gathered his troops, besieging Saloninus and Silvanus at Cologne in 260. The city was captured, and Saloninus was put to death.

¤ SALUTATIO The greeting given every morning from six to eight A.M. to the most powerful or high-ranking persons in the Rome of the imperial era. This form of flattery was typical of Roman society at the time, for those who desired advancement in the state sought the patronage of figures of influence. Although tiresome, the salutatio was deemed necessary, for favors could be asked and a small monetary gift, the sportula, was often given. The term also referred to the cheer given to a general by his troops, either in celebration of a victory or in recognition of his rank as IMPERATOR. On the basis of the salutatio, some generals assumed that their troops were saying that the general should aspire to the throne.

¤ SALVIANUS (fl. 5th century A.D.) Known also as Salvianus of Massilia or Marseilles; a presbyter and writer. Born probably near Cologne, Salvianus was a Christian by birth, later marrying and converting a pagan named Palladia. The couple broke up, in the mutual pursuit of religion, and Salvianus moved to a monastery on the island of Lerins, just off modern-day Cannes. From around 424 to 439 he taught there. Salvianus was the author of numerous books, the most important being de Gubernatione Dei (On the Governing of God), a treatise in eight books arguing in favor of the divine retribution of the Almighty. An invaluable study of the prevailing social depravity within the Roman Empire, the work contrasted the social vices of the Romans with the cleansing vitality of the barbarian hordes. Morality clearly held the upper hand to society and declining sense of rectitude. Other efforts include ad Ecclesiam in four books, showing that Christians should donate their goods to the church, and letters.

¤ SAMARIA District in PALAESTINA situated to the north of JUDAEA and the south of GALILEE. Samaria was once one of the most important cities in the region, serving for a time as the capital of the kingdom of Israel. However, an intense dislike between the Samaritans and their Jewish neighbors dated as far back as the Babylonian Captivity. Thus, Samaria was considered a separate area of Palestine. Under POMPEY THE GREAT'S reorganization of the East it was attached to SYRIA. AUGUSTUS presented it to HEROD THE GREAT, who spent large sums beautifying it. After Herod's death in 4 B.C., the Samaritans fell under the control of Archelaus, until he was removed, and then the legate of Syria assumed overall command via the procurator of Judaea. Around 36 A.D., a small local incident caused a major social upheaval, and PONTIUS PILATE called in troops to quell the unrest. Appalled at the bloodshed that resulted, the Samaritans protested to VITELLIUS, the governor of Syria. Their appeals eventually cost Pilate his career. By the 4th century A.D., Samaria was a place of no importance.

¤ SAMOS Island in the Aegean Sea, separated by a narrow channel from the coast of ASIA MINOR. Samos had a long and honorable history during the formation of the Mediterranean world, before passing into the hands of Rome in 84 B.C., when it was attached to the province of Asia. Through the work of Q. CICERO in 62 B.C., some of the island's wealth was returned to it, and further favor was shown during the time of its occupation by ANTONY and CLEOPATRA in 32. AUGUSTUS found Samos to be an excellent place to winter. He spent the cool months there in 21 and 20 B.C. For their hospitality, the residents were declared free by his decree. Subsequently the island had little to offer except as an abode for exiles.

¤ SAMOSATA Capital city of the kingdom of COMMA-GENE in northern SYRIA. It became a major site in the province of Syria after the annexation of the realm by VESPASIAN in 72 A.D. Subsequently the city was the birthplace of two notable philosophers, the pagan LUCIAN of Samosata and the Christian PAUL OF SAMOSATA.

¤ SANTONES Tribe in Gallia Aquitania that lived on the western coast of Gaul (Gallia); quickly subdued by the legions of Julius Caesar during the GALLIC WARS. By 56 B.C. and the successful conclusion of the operations of Crassus in Aquitania, the Santones were considered pacified. Although they took part in the widespread rebellion of VERCINGETORIX in 52 B.C., they eventually were declared a federated state of Rome. Their chief city, originally called Mediolanum, was later known as Santones (Saintes).

¤ SAOTERUS (fl. 2nd century A.D.) Influential freedman during the reign of Emperor Commodus (177-192 A.D.). Saoterus was notable because of his origins. Coming from NICOMEDIA he used his position to reward his old city, receiving senatorial permission to hold games there and to build a temple to Commodus. He was murdered by the more ambitious CLEANDER.

¤ SARACENS A warlike and nomadic people who originated in northwestern Arabia but came to be known throughout a wide stretch of land, from Mesopotamia to the Nile. Although contact was made between the Saracens and ROME during the reign of MARCUS AURELIUS, actual dealings were uncommon until the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. Known as the Saraceni, one of their chiefs offered to be an ally to Julian but joined the Persians against the Roman Empire because of the terrible treatment given to him by Julian. The most famous leader of the Saracens was Queen Mavia, who carried on a war against the Romans in PALESTINE, from 373 to 378. When a treaty was finally arranged in 378, she sent a troop of her warriors to help defend CONSTANTINOPLE from Gothic attack, following the battle of ADRIANOPLE. Ammianus wrote of their sortie against the GOTHS, describing how one of the Saracens, dressed only in a loin cloth, killed a barbarian and then drank his blood. This so horrified the enemy that their normal bravado was severely shaken.

¤ SARDANAPALUS The name of the last ruler of the Assyrian Empire; it was adopted by Emperor ELAGABALUS as part of his numerous Eastern titles.

¤ SARDINIA Large island in the Mediterranean, positioned strategically south of the island of CORSICA and about midway between Spain's Balearic Islands and the western shore of Italy. Fertile and rich in raw materials, Sardinia attracted the attention of the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians and, ultimately, the Romans, who conquered it and neighboring Corsica in 227 B.C. Sardinia was originally placed under the provincial command of a praetor, but with the founding of the Roman Empire a change was made. Under AUGUSTUS (ruled 27 B.C.-14 A.D.) the island, along with Corsica, was declared a senatorial province in the care of a proconsul. Just as local opposition to Roman occupation had surfaced in the 3rd century B.C., civil unrest and bandit activity probably contributed to the transfer of Sardinia to the imperial provinces in 6 A.D. Procurators remained as governors until Nero's time, when he traded it back to the Senate in return for granting freedom to Achaea. Over the years Sardinia passed back and forth, depending upon various circumstances, until finally, in the reign of Marcus AURELIUS (161-180 A.D.), senatorial rights were returned. Under the reforms of DIOCLETIAN, the isle belonged to the diocese of Italia.

When compared to its rocky and barren sister, Corsica, Sardinia was blessed with natural wealth. The plains in the western and southern sections offered great opportunities for agriculture. The full economic potential of the island was never developed, but crop production still yielded vast amounts of food for nearby Italy, especially ROME. With corn were to be found rich mines of iron and silver. Finally, beautiful springs provided salt, which was sold on the coast.

The seat of government for both Sardinia and Corsica was at Carales, the largest city. The Romans found the Sardinians to be quite uncivilized and fought for many years to subdue them. Most outbreaks of violence originated in the mountains dominating the east and parts of the north. Called the Insani Monies (the Mountains of Insanity), they were the hiding places of rebels and brigands. Operations were necessary against them, most notably in the reign of TIBERIUS (14-37 A.D.).

¤ SARDIS One of the great cities of ASIA MINOR and once the capital of Lydia. Known also as Sardes, it was situated in western Asia Minor, northeast of SMYRNA. Although still large and productive, it suffered a decline during the imperial era because of the continued development of Ephesus and Pergamum. In 17 A.D., Sardis was virtually destroyed in the earthquake that ruined numerous cities in the province of Asia. Although rebuilt through the help of Tiberius, the city was never able to recover its prestige. The clearest evidence of this was given in 26, when Sardis and Smyrna competed for the right to build a temple in honor of TIBERIUS. Smyrna won. Sardis was a very early place of Christian worship, mentioned by John in Revelation as one of the seven churches in Asia. He commented upon its state of ruin.

¤ SARMATIANS Called Sarmatae by the Romans, these large and powerful people of Indo-Iranian descent lived for centuries on the steppes of southern Russia, roughly east of the Don (ancient name, Tanais) River, near the Sea of Azov. They were closely connected racially to the Scythians, who possessed an extensive empire along the Black Sea. Contact between the two peoples was warlike but limited until the middle of the 3rd century B.C., when migrations of Iranian-based tribes pushed the Sarmatians westward. This brought them into direct conflict with the Scythians, whom they eventually defeated for control of the entire region, except the Crimean Peninsula. The Scythians proved the more active of the two nations, and the Sarmatae broke into small tribal entities.

Sarmatian culture was surprisingly well developed and enlightened. Although nomadic, they had an organized aristocracy that ran a vast empire while accumulating wealth. The most interesting cultural feature was the probably-Iranian holdover of women possessing a major role in affairs, both domestic and military. Not only were women more free than their Hellenic or Roman counterparts, they also hunted and rode into battle with the men. Sarmatian possessions were always distinctive, with colors being used throughout their clothing. Pottery was often primitive, but they seemed to like imports from all over the East. As with the Scythians, the Sarmatians had an intense fondness for gold, using it in virtually every aspect of their life, especially in armor.

In battle, the Sarmatians adopted the same tactics and strategies as the Scythians, Parthians and most other Eastern states. This meant the use of massive units of cavalry, divided into heavy and light. Heavy cavalry usually meant the nobles, dressed in thick body armor varying in composition between iron and bone. They carried heavy lances and their charge was not easily broken. In support rode the light cavalry, less armored and bearing bows fired with a deadly accuracy.

Contact with the Roman Empire came in successive waves, ending in often bloody struggles. The first of the tribes was the IAZYGES, who settled in the Danube region. They were followed closely by the ROXOLANI and then the ALANS or Alani.

¤ SARMIZEGETHUSA The capital of DACIA, both for the independent realm and the Roman province. Sarmizegethusa was the largest city in the kingdom and considered essential to the well-being of the Dacians. Throughout the wars of King DECEBALUS with Rome, Sarmizegethusa was kept safe from capture, but in the summer of 106 A.D. it fell to the legions of TRAJAN. The Romans chose to keep it as the center of the new province of Dacia. Trajan founded a colony there, renaming the city of Colonia Ulpia Traiana Augusta Dacica Sarmizegethusa Metropolis, more commonly known as Colonia Dacia.

¤ SASSANID DYNASTY Family ruling the so-called Persian Empire from 226 A.D. until the middle of the 7th century. Using a powerful combination of political domination, noble allies and religious unity, the Sassanids forged a realm that came to be viewed as the equal of the Roman Empire. In 208 A.D., Papak King, a minor vassal lord of the Parthian Empire, was succeeded as ruler of the small realm of Persis by his son, SHAPUR. His youngest son, ARDASHIR, overthrew his brother and became king. With Shapur dead, Ardashir subdued the surrounding vassals of Parthia and, in 224, defeated and killed ARTABANUS v in battle. In 226 Ardashir took the title of "King of Kings," ascending the throne of a new empire, Persia.

From the start, the Romans had no idea that the Persians would be any different from the corrupt and deteriorated Parthians. Their blissful ignorance was shattered in 230, when Ardashir rolled into Mesopotamia. This war set off a long series of conflicts that raged over the next 133 years. Emperor SEVERUS ALEXANDER was able to respond effectively enough, but even when he departed in 233 for home no treaty was concluded. The Persians were back, under Shapur I, in 242. His reign was notable for one major victory, the annihilation of Emperor VALERIAN in 259-260, at Edessa. The Sassanids captured a Roman emperor, destroyed his entire army and justifiably laid claim to control of the East. Persian triumphs came at the darkest moment in imperial history, and total mastery of the Eastern provinces was prevented only by the rise of ODAENATH of PALMYRA. Shapur suffered crushing setbacks at the hands of the Palmyran, even enduring a siege of CTESIPHON in 267. There followed a period of decline, so that in 283, Emperor Carus felt confident enough to launch a major war upon Persia's King VARAHRAN II. Ctesiphon fell. Further inroads might have been made, but Carus died, probably murdered by his Praetorian Prefect Aper. With the accession of DIOCLETIAN, Varahran II was forced to surrender Mesopotamia and ARMENIA.

The era of weakness seemed ended in 293, when NARSES came to power. Narses invaded Syria in 296, thrashing the tetrarch GALERIUS in battle near Callinicus. Galerius, urged on by Diocletian, went back on the defensive in 298, not only routing Narses but seizing Ctesiphon as well. Roman terms of peace had to be accepted. Mesopotamia was lost, Armenia was a Roman client and other stretches of territory along the Tigris surrendered. It was a bleak moment for the Sassanids, but a brilliant recovery came in the person of SHAPUR II, who ruled from 309 to 379. Once of a mature age, he massacred all who might oppose him within the Persian nobility, firmly took hold of the army and declared war on the Roman Empire around 336. He fought with CONSTANTIUS II, losing an encounter in 344 or 348, and enduring a huge operation by Julian in 363. When that pagan emperor died in 363, his replacement, Jovian, accepted the Persian terms for peace, a humiliating and unnecessary treaty. Shapur was satisfied, and SHAPUR III (383-388) signed an important pact with THEODOSIUS I around 384-386.

This agreement ended the long, unbroken chain of hostilities between the Sassanids and the Romans. It was all the more remarkable because between 387 and 502 it remained in force, with only two minor violations. Thus, both states were able to focus on internal politics, while enjoying a warm if not uneasy relationship. For the Eastern Empire, the barbarians could be held in check, while for Persia the ever restless nomadic peoples on the frontiers could be repulsed or subjugated. Typical of the dealings between Constantinople and the Sassanids was the sending of emissaries to announce all successions or policy decisions; failure to do so was seen as a major breach of protocol.

The Sassanid Dynasty came to power through the vigor of a young people, ready to explode, whose energy was applied in the destruction of the Parthians and all who might oppose the Sassanid programs. But when actual governing was needed, the Persians chose to adopt much of the Parthian system. This was understandable, for the bureaucracy of the Parthians was, in Eastern terms, generally efficient. An essential difference was the strong centralization of the entire government. Unlike the Arsacids, the Sassanids kept the nobility in line while running the vast regions of the empire with governors or with reliable clients. No other Ardashir was to be allowed to rise up and declare himself King of Kings. The monarchs of Persia were naturally more autocratic, leaning on the feudal nobility for support. The aristocracy supplied the army with its characteristic, mailed cavalry. With the state pillars of the Royal House and the Nobles stood the religion of the Sassanids, Zoroastrianism (or Mazdaism).

Coming from Iran, the Persians were firm adherents of Zoroastrian doctrines. The Sassanids converted their traditional faith into a leading political element. A priesthood, with influence over every social caste, jealously guarded its own place and watched for unacceptable heresies, such as MANICHAEISM. There were, however, many faiths in the Persian world, including Buddhism, Judaism, the original Zoroastrians as opposed to the Mazdean forms, and CHRISTIANITY.

Beneath the triad of throne, nobles and priests there existed the bulk of the citizenry. There was probably a second class of nobles, answerable to the leading houses. Another class would have been the non-noble ministers and government officials, followed by the masses of common inhabitants. There was, no doubt, a complicated and ritualized social pattern that went with the various levels of life, a system in play until the fall of the Sassanids to the Moslems around 651.

The Sassanid Kings

King Dates
 
Papak 208-224 A.D.
Shapur 224
Ardashir 226-241
Shapur I 241-272
Hormazd Ardashir 272-273
Varahran I 273-276
Varahran II 293
Narses 293-302
Hormazd II 302-309
Shapur II 309-379
Ardashir II 379-383
Shapur III 383-388
Varahran IV 388-399
Yazdagird I 399-420
Varahran V 420-439
Yazdagird II 439-457
Hormazd III 457-459
Peroz 459-484
Valash 484-488
Kavad 488-531
Zamasp 496-498
Khusro I 531-579
Hormazd IV 579-590
Varahran Chobin 590-591
Khusro II 590-628
Kavad II 628
Ardashir III 628-629
Boran 629-630
Hormazd V 630-c. 632
Yazdagird III 632-651

¤ SATIRE A form of versification with the object of ridiculing or mocking folly or social failings and thus correcting society on the whole while entertaining it. Quintilian once remarked that "Satire is wholly ours" ("satura total nostra est"). This was not inaccurate, for only in the spirited, spontaneous, biting and practical hands of the Romans could satire so blossom.

Proto-Satire probably came to Rome in the early 4th century B.C., with itinerant minstrels who performed their improvised Fescennine verse on the public stage. In 364, Etruscan artists offered an actual ballet, beginning a tradition of combined humor with music and dance, to which were added influences from the Greeks. These included Stoic and Cynic speakers who addressed a multitude of sins in their sermones, using jokes and anecdotes to enliven their style.

In the 2nd century B.C., Ennius penned poetry aimed specifically at satirizing life and death. He was followed by two influential writers of satire, Varro and Lurilius. Varro (d. 27 B.C.) came after Lucilius (d. 102/1 B.C.) but was unique in his Menippean satires by combining both prose and poetry. Serious subjects were treated in a humorous fashion. This mixed writing was adopted by other satirists. PETRONIUS found it useful, as did SENECA in his Apocolocyntosis, a vicious lampooning of the deification of Claudius. A much later application was made by Emperor Julian in his jocular Caesares, about the emperors before him.

However, Lucilius (2nd century B.C.) was credited by Horace with being the "Father of Satire." He observed many facets of life at the time, using humor, seriousness or bitter attack. As his medium of expression was hexameter, he was quickly and easily mirrored by a host of imitators who, in the opinion of HORACE, could never match him. There were, however, several notable satirists.

Horace led the great revival of satire at the end of the 1st century B.C. Preferring to poke fun at less obscene parts of the human comedy, he was never particularly offensive. PERSIUS, in the early 1st century A.D., pursued the Lucilian form but did not attain the literary heights of JUVENAL, who was arguably the finest and the last of the satirists. With Juvenal, satire came to an end as a viable art form. It was too dangerous to apply rapier wit against a murderous imperial regime. Even Horace and Juvenal adopted the names of the dead or titles from other writers. Such restrictions made further growth quite impossible.

¤ SATURNALIA The festival in honor of SATURNUS, held originally on December 17 of each year. Of the many holidays on the Roman calendar, Saturnalia was certainly the happiest. This was probably due to the adoption of so many Greek characteristics in the Roman pantheon. Just as Saturnus was heavily influenced by the Greek god Kronos, so was the Saturnalia transformed by the merry day of Kronia. When the Saturnalia originated is unclear, except that it was very old. Chief characteristics of the holiday were a temporary abolition of social standing so that slaves were given the day off, gambling was allowed, gifts were exchanged with family and friends, and a Saturnalicus princeps (a leading man of the Saturnalia or a "Lord of Misrule") was elected. Clearly, the Saturnalia had its own effect upon the celebration of the Christian Christmas and New Year.

¤ SATURNINUS, AEMILIUS (d.c. 197 A.D.) Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD with PLAUTIANUS during the reign of Septimius SEVERUS. He was murdered by his ambitious colleague.

¤ SATURNINUS, APONIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) Governor of MOESIA in 69 A.D.; gained a victory for ROME against the SARMATIANS, the tribe that had hoped to use the chaos in the Empire to its own advantage. Saturninus was given a triumph and retained in his office by both Emperors OTHO and VITELLIUS. When the III Legion in ILLYRICUM revolted against Vitellius, Saturninus wrote the emperor of the events but later shrewdly deduced that the cause of Vespasian would eventually triumph. He thus joined Antonius Primus in marching on Italy. Suspected of being secretive and scheming, Saturninus had difficulty holding on to the loyalty of his troops. When he was charged with writing to Vitellius, the soldiers tried to murder him. He fled, retired to Patavium and surrendered total command to Primus.

¤ SATURNINUS, JULIUS (d.c. 278 A.D.) A usurper in the East during the early part of the reign of Emperor PRO-BUS (c. 278); probably a Moor, as reported by ZOSIMUS, instead of a Gaul, as listed in the Historia Augusta. One of the most reliable generals in the army of Aurelian, he was appointed overall commander of the East. Shortly after Probus succeeded AURELIAN, the LEGIONS of Saturninus elevated him to the purple. His period was brief. Although he minted coins at ANTIOCH, he own soldiers killed him at Apamea.

¤ SATURNINUS, LUCIUS ANTONINUS (d. 89 A.D.) Governor of GERMANIA Superior during the reign of Emperor DOMITIAN. In January 89 Saturninus took control of his two legions at Moguntiacum (Mainz) and attempted a rebellion against the central government. When word reached ROME, Domitian set off at once, but his presence on the Rhine proved unnecessary. A. Lappius MAXIMUS, governor of Germania Inferior, had refused to join his colleague. He marched his troops to battle and destroyed Saturninus at a site near the Rhine. The German tribes who were supposed to help Saturninus could not cross the Rhine because of an early thaw. Maximus wisely burned Saturninus' papers to avoid unnecessary cruelties by Domitian.

¤ SATURNINUS SECUNDUS, SALUTIUS (d. after 367 A.D.) Praetorian prefect from 361 to 367; called the "Phoenix" by Libanius because of his ability to recover from political setbacks. He came from Gaul and was a pagan, earning the trust of Emperor JULIAN THE APOSTATE. Thus, in 361, Julian appointed him Praetorian prefect for the East. Remaining with Julian throughout his short reign, he convinced his master that Christians should not be tortured in Antioch. As one of the leading generals of the time, he helped organize the Roman fleet to be used against the Persians. In the campaign of 363 he was very nearly killed in the same battle in which Julian was mortally wounded. After Julian died in 363, Saturninus was reportedly offered the throne, declining because of his age. He continued to serve Jovian and VALENTINIAN i, but was finally forced to retire in 367, because of his advanced years and the intrigues of other palace officials. Although a pagan, he was noted for his fair treatment of Christians and his incorruptible nature.

¤ SATURNINUS DOGMATIUS, GAIUS CAELIUS (fl. early 4th century A.D.) He was the Praetorian prefect of Gaul (Gallia) from 334 to 335 and a trusted servant of CONSTANTINE the Great. Of non-senatorial descent, his career probably began during the reign of CONSTANTIUS I Chlorus (305-306 A.D.) and many of his early posts were held under that emperor. After serving as head of the RES PRIVATA, he held offices in Italia, including PREFECT OF GRAIN for Rome (praefectus annone urbis), and later came to the rank of VICARIUS for Moesia and PREFECT OF THE CITY of Rome. Around 324 Constantine elevated him to COMES and then appointed him to the Senate through ADLECTIO. Very reliable, Saturninus was made Praetorian prefect in his own right.

¤ SATURNUS God of time. One of the least known of the Roman gods, his origins and characteristics were mysterious. According to some legends he was a mythical king of Italia, but his origin was probably related to the Latin satus (sowing or planting). This made him a very old agricultural deity, identified by early Romans with the Greek god Kronos, and hence father of Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto and Juno. Saturnus, like Kronos, was considered the oldest god in the Roman pantheon. Fleeing Jupiter, it was said, he appeared to King Janus and was given a temple on the Capitoline Hill, which later became the treasury (the aerarium Saturni). In return, he taught the Romans agriculture and headed Italia during a fabled age. The fact that he was a Greek import was demonstrated by the sacrifices made to him. The presiding priest had an uncovered head by tradition during ceremonies, as compared to a covered head for other ceremonies, although there is etymological argument for his origin in Etruria. The festival in honor of Saturnus, the SATURNALIA, was one of the most joyous holidays in ROME. Saturnus, however, did have a dark side, for he was associated with an unknown goddess, Lua (or Lua Mater), whose name implied lues (plague or disease). See also GODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME.

¤ SAXONS One of the most powerful and active Germanic tribes in the Late Empire. The Saxons developed as a people in the region of the Cimbric Chersonesus, roughly between the Elbe and Trave rivers (modern Holstein). They made their presence felt by other Germans by overrunning the lands of the Chauci along the Elbe in the late 2nd century A.D., before entering into conflict with others. The date of their contact with Rome has, by some, been put at 286 A.D. Henceforth they fought with the Franks for supremacy of both the Lower Rhine-Elbe territories and the confederations of tribes along the German frontier. Their attacks in Gaul caused considerable damage, while their savage piratic activity rendered the northern coast of Gaul virtually indefensible, hastening the demise of imperial control in Britain. From the middle of the 5th century, Saxons in large numbers took part in raids on Britain, with the Jutes and the Angles. Their raiders eventually settled permanently in the isles. Britain was soon conquered and occupied by this wave of invaders.

¤ SCAEVINUS, FLAVIUS (d. 65 A.D.) A senator during the reign of NERO and a member of the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY in 65 A.D. Scaevinus was one of the leading figures in the plot to murder the emperor, but he was unable to keep it a secret. Betrayed by his freedman Milichus, he at first denied any knowledge of the plan. But when his friend Antonius Natalis confessed everything, Scaevinus joined him, revealing the names of co-conspirators. He was then executed.

¤ SCAPULA, PUBLIUS OSTORIUS (d. 52 A.D.) Consul in 47 A.D. and an important general in the Roman pacification of Britain. Of an Equestrian family, he was appointed by Emperor CLAUDIUS in 47 to succeed Aulus Plautius as governor of Britain, with orders to extend Rome's dominion over the isle and to certify its possessions. This operation, handled professionally and without mercy, was eminently successful. He designed the Fosse Way, the line of communications that stretched behind the frontier. Roman presence was made permanent with a colony at CAMULODUNUM. (Colchester). These advances came at a terrible price, for Scapula made war on the rebellious ICENI, DECANGI, BRIGANTES and Silures. This last tribe, led by CARATACUS, required severe methods of suppression. When Caratacus was taken to ROME in 51, Scapula was awarded a triumph. Much work remained, and subsequent campaigns were not as productive. The Silures refused to surrender, and Scapula died of exhaustion in the field.

¤ SCAPULA, Q. OSTORIUS (fl. late 1st century B.C.) The first PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD, with Publius Salvius Aper. A member of the Equestrians, Scapula was chosen by AUGUSTUS in 2 B.C. to assume joint command of the Praetorians. He was not to exercise any of the powers that would come to be a fixture of the prefectship and was removed (with Aper) in favor of Valerius Ligur, sometime before 14 A.D. He subsequently served as prefect of Egypt.

¤ SCAURUS, MAMERCUS AEMILIUS (d. 34 A.D.) A great-grandson of the famous Republican figure, Marcus Amelius Scaurus, and a noted orator in his own right. Wealthy and a member of the SENATE, Scaurus earned the dislike and scorn of Emperor TIBERIUS, who called him a disgrace to his ancestors. Although no one could fault his oratory or skills as an ADVOCATUS, such imperial displeasure numbered his days. The prefect of the Praetorian Guard, MACRO, attacked his writing of a tragedy, Atreus, as treasonous. This and other supposed crimes brought his forced suicide in 34 A.D.. He was the uncle and stepfather of Domitius CORBULO (2).

¤ SCAURUS, Q. TERENTIUS (fl. 2nd century A.D.) Grammarian who specialized in Latin grammar. His work, de orthographia, was mentioned by such late writers as AUSONIUS and CHARISIUS and thus helped preserve important elements of the Latin language. Scaurus also authored commentaries on VIRGIL and HORACE.

¤ SCHOLAE PALATINAE One of the corps of bodyguards created by CONSTANTINE the Great to replace the defunct PRAETORIAN GUARD. Constantine desired his new force to be intensely loyal to the imperial household and thus gave the units on duty a special area of the palace in which they could await orders. Chosen, originally, from the German cavalry regiments, the Scholae was divided into so-called schools, seven in number and each 500 strong. Each school was under the command of a tribune, who was answerable to the MAGISTER OFFICIORUM. Most of their duties were in Constantinople with the new administration, but it is possible that some of the Scholae were posted in the West. See also, PALATINI; SCUTARII.

¤ SCRIBONIA (fl. 1st century B.C.) Wife of Octavian (AUGUSTUS) before his marriage to Livia Drusilla. He wed Scribonia, sister of Lucius Scribonius Libo, out of political considerations, for Libo was the father-in-law of Sextus POMPEY. Scribonia was much older than Octavian and had already been married twice, to ex-consuls. Their union was not a happy one. On the day in 39 B.C. that she bore him a daughter, Julia (3), he divorced her in favor of Livia, claiming "I could not stand her nagging." When Julia was banished by Augustus in 2 B.C., Scribonia went into exile with her.

¤ SCRIBONII BROTHERS Proculus and Rufus Sulpicii Scribonii were brothers who made themselves useful to NERO (ruled 54-68 A.D.). In 58 A.D., they were sent to PUTEOLI with a cohort of Praetorians to suppress the citizenry there, who were upset about the trade competition from Ostia. The Scribonii put down the revolt with total ruthlessness, restoring order very quickly. Later they were appointed governors of Germania Superior and Inferior, running the provinces together, for they did everything in unison and were very close. Hearing complaints about their habits, Nero summoned them to Greece and compelled them both to commit suicide.

¤ SCRINII Name given to the secretarial department of the central imperial administration. Established during the early years of the Empire, the scrinii had become a vast bureaucracy by the 4th century A.D., when they were placed under the magistri scrinii, who were answerable to the MAGISTER OFFICIORUM. There were originally three major sections of the scrinii-the memoriae, libellorum and epistularum-followed later by the dispositionum. The memoriae, under the MAGISTER MEMORIAE, handled petitions to the emperor; the libellorum was concerned with legal cases; and the epistolarum, which drafted correspondence, was split in two, one for Greek and the other for Latin. Finally, there was the dispositionum whose comes dispositionum worked out travel arrangements for the emperors. See also COMES; EPISTULIS AB; LIBELLUS, A; NOTARII.

¤ SCRIPTORES HISTORIAE AUGUSTAE Known also as the Historia Augusta and the Augustan History, a collection of biographies of the Roman emperors, caesars and usurpers from the reign of Hadrian to that of Carinus and Numerian (roughly 117-284 A.D., with a gap c. 244-259). The Historia Augusta is one of the most debated and controversial ancient sources available to modern scholars. Originally called Vitae Caesarum, the collected biographies were first named the Historia Augusta by I. Casaubon in the early 17th century. It was claimed to have been written by six authors: Aelius Spartianus, Julis Capitolinus, Aelius Lampridius, Vulcacius Gallicanus, Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus. The influence of Suetonius' Lives of the Caesars is obvious, although these works were probably not a continuation of the Lives.

Such a question is only one of many concerning the Historia Augusta. Doubts as to the accuracy of the accounts, the number of actual authors, the reliability of the documents, changes made in the manuscripts, and the dating of their original composition have left authorities with little option but to form theories based on the most verifiable evidence. The amount of conjecture, coupled with the obvious falsification of sources and documents, rendered the entire Historia Augusta suspect. This is unfortunate, because the writings stand as the principle mine of information on the 3rd century A.D. and its many emperors. The biographies for this era are especially dubious with regards to the so-called Thirty Tyrants and a vicious treatment of Gallienus. Thus, when used, care must be exercised. See THIRTY TYRANTS.

¤ SCUTARII A part of the imperial bodyguard founded by Diocletian to act as a substitute to the PRAETORIAN GUARD. The scutarii were based on the equite scutarii of the era of Gallienus, who used them as a special cavalry corps. Diocletian promoted them to the bodyguard, recruiting their numbers from the Illyrian legions, making them more reliable than the Praetorians. From the time of Constantine the Great, the scutarii were probably attached to the SCHOLAE PALATINAE.

¤ SCYTHIA A very ancient land that was, according to Roman thinking, a vast territory extending from the Volga and the north of the BLACK SEA to the borders of India. While the Scythians actually occupied a smaller area than this, their traditionally nomadic lifestyle and brilliant use of the endless steppes made them for several centuries the masters of the Ukraine and the Caucasus. Originally they were a very mobile nation, living and traveling in the skin-covered wagons so typical of the yurts of the Steppe people and the Mongols. They were superb horsemen, dangerous warriors and self-sacrificing in war. Over time, they cultivated fields of grain in the south of the Ukraine, and groups of them became settled in the Crimea. Such agricultural endeavors made them responsive to economic ties with inhabitants of parts of the other Black Sea coast, especially through THRACE and ASIA MINOR. The Scythian Empire was thus wealthy and considerable, dealing especially with the Greeks.

Unfortunately, pressures from the East drove the related SARMATIANS into conflict with the Scythians in the middle of the 3rd century B.C. After bitter fighting the Scythians were defeated but retained their holdings in the Crimean Peninsula. Here they remained, continuing to play a trading role in the region. A number of Scythian-based tribes did journey west to the Danube frontier. One of the largest was the tribe of the Bastarnae, responsible for ravaging parts of Thrace in 30-29 B.C. They were defeated and their King Deldo killed by Marcus CRASSUS (2) in 29 B.C. Other Scythians remained in the Danubian territory, some supplying troops to Rome; CARACALLA had Scythian bodyguards.

¤ SEBASTIANUS (d. 378 A.D.) MAGISTER PEDITUM in the East in 378; described by the historian Ammianus Marcellinus as a quiet, peace-loving man who was very popular with the troops. He was appointed to the post of leader in EGYPT in 356-358, giving support to Bishop George of ALEXANDRIA and the Arians, and removing all orthodox followers of Athanasius, probably at the demand of the pro-Arian Emperor CONSTANTIUS n. Sebastianus next appeared in the service of JULIAN in 363, in the Persian Campaign before joining VALENTINIAN I on his trip to the West in 364. As one of the emperor's generals, he took part in operations against the Alamanni in 368, and, with MEROBAUDES, against the Quadi in 375. With the death of Valentinian in that year, the jealous Merobaudes sent Sebastianus, who was ignorant of the emperor's demise, to a post so far removed as to ensure no interference with the succession.

By 378 he held the rank of magister peditum, through the influence of Emperor VALENS, who requested his help in the battle against the GOTHS. While accounts differ as to the circumstances of his departure for the East (several mention the intrigues of the eunuchs in the West), his services were welcomed by the ruler of the East. Despite successes against the Goths in THRACE, he advised Valens not to wait for Gratian to arrive with reinforcements but to attack the barbarians immediately. His counsel was followed, with the result being the battle of ADRIANOPLE. Sebastianus was among the dead in the disaster.

¤ SECUNDUS, PEDANIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) PREFECT OF THE CITY in 61 A.D., who was murdered by his own slave. The case was of great public interest because of the old law that stipulated that in case of such a crime all of the slaves in the house should be put to death. When the soldiers arrived to carry out the punishment, a mob prevented them with stones. Emperor NERO then rebuked the people and ordered the executions to go forth. See also SLAVERY.

¤ SECUNDUS, PETRONIUS (d. 98 A.D.) Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD with Norbanus during the reign of DOMITIAN. In 96, he became a member of the plot to murder the emperor, joining his colleague and Domitia, the empress. Following Domitian's assassination, Secundus was replaced by Casperius AELIANUS, who incited the Praetorians to revolt and demand revenge for the dead emperor. Despite his friendship with Nerva, the new ruler, Secundus had to be handed over for execution by his own soldiers in 98.

¤ SEGOVIA A town in Spain situated in the region of the Guadarrama Mountains in Hispania Lusitania. Segovia possessed one of the finest aqueducts in the Roman Empire. Built in the late 1st or 2nd century A.D., the aqueduct carried water into the town from a nearby source at Rufrio and included an architecturally brilliant bridge over a steep valley.

¤ SEINE River known as the Sequana to the local Celtic tribe of the SEQUANI; one of the main rivers in Gaul (GALLIA), it played a major role in trade and communications within the provinces of Tres Galliae. Cutting across Gallia Lugdunensis, the Seine, which rises near Dijon and flows northwestward to the English Channel, provided the Romans with a wide river and tributaries for waterborne traffic throughout the whole province and into Gallia Belgica. This system was one of the secrets to Gaul's success in trade and industry.

¤ SEJANUS, LUCIUS AELIUS (c. 20 B.C.-31 A.D.) PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD from 14 to 31 A.D. and one of the most ambitious yet enigmatic figures of the 1st century A.D. The son of the successful Equestrian Lucius STRABO, he was bom in Volsinii (modem Tuscany) and used family connections to have himself adopted by the Aelians, perhaps by Aelius Gallus, the prefect of Egypt. With his father and adoptive father, as well as his respected brothers, Sejanus was perfectly positioned to embark upon a glorious career.

One of his first posts was with Gaius CAESAR during the prince's posting to the East (1 B.C.-4 A.D.). After Gaius died Sejanus joined the staff of Tiberius before receiving the appointment as co-prefect of the Praetorian Guard with his father in 14 A.D. Soon, at the request of TIBERIUS (now emperor), Lucius Strabo took up the position of prefect of Egypt, and Sejanus became the sole master of the Praetorians. He made himself absolutely indispensable to Tiberius, acting as his workhorse and loyal supporter, while slowly amassing political influence. By having his own minions appointed to key positions he soon was the equal of virtually any other official of state. He was pleased by the death of GERMANICUS in 19, seeing it as the perfect chance to rid himself of the legitimate heirs to the throne, the children of GERMANICUS and DRUSUS (3), Tiberius' son.

Drusus was murdered in 23, probably by poison after Sejanus had seduced his wife Livilla. The party of Germanicus followed. AGRIPPINA THE ELDER and her sons, NERO and DRUSUS (2) were removed in 29, and their friends and allies faced condemnation, exile or death. Tiberius secretly abetted Sejanus' annihilation of his enemies, receiving continued signs of the prefect's loyalty, first in 22, when Sejanus helped extinguish the fire in the Theater of Pompey, and then in 26, when the roof caved in at the grotto of SPELUNCA. There he leaped upon the emperor, shielding his body from the rocks.

Tiberius was ready to listen when the prefect had ideas for improving the principate. In 23, Sejanus received permission to centralize the cohorts of the Praetorian Guard in Rome, thereby creating the CASTRA PRAETORIA that brought so much unhappiness to the city. His statues appeared everywhere in the provinces, and Tiberius referred to him as adjutor imperii, or "imperial aide." Those seeking promotions or favors looked to him for help or patronage. A triumph came in 26, when he convinced Tiberius to depart from Rome to Capri. There he could keep close watch over the emperor while continuing to build his own strength in the capital.

Sejanus then asked for permission to marry Livilla, Drusus's widow; Tiberius denied him this reward, offering, instead, permission to marry Julia, Livilla's daughter. The betrothal was announced in 31. Sejanus was at the height of his power, serving as CONSUL and accepting the fearful respect of the Senate.

Perhaps through the warnings of Antonia, Claudius' mother, or because of his own sense of intrigue, Tiberius wakened to the threat of Sejanus. In a carefully laid plot he trapped the prefect in 31, having him arrested, taken to the dungeon of TULLIANUM and there executed. His three children, two sons and a daughter, were also slain. The daughter, being under age, was raped to make her eligible and then executed. They joined their father at the base of the GEMONIAN STAIRS. APICATA, Sejanus' divorced wife, was spared but committed suicide. A bloodbath ensued as the clients of Sejanus were hunted down without mercy.

There has been considerable debate as to the ultimate aim of Sejanus. He was destroyed before any plans could come to fruition, but through his work the principate was made absolute, the Praetorians awakened to their political potential and the prefectship of the Guard was made powerful.

¤ SELEUCIA A great and ancient city in Babylonia, on the Tigris River, near modern Baghdad. Seleucia was for many years the capital of the entire region until the rise of CTESIPHON. Despite its political decline at the hands of the Parthians, the city did not lose its prestige or importance in terms of trade. Seleucia retained its independence during the years of the Parthian Empire and was probably at the heart of numerous internal conspiracies and power struggles for the throne in the 1st century B.C. and A.D. Because of its location on the Tigris, Seleucia was one of the targets of Roman attack in any campaign against PARTHIA and later PERSIA. By the 4th century A.D. and the Persian War of Julian, the city was virtually deserted. The name Seleucia was used for other cities in the East, founded in the Greek style.

¤ SENACULUM Name given to the Women's Senate established by Emperor ELAGABALUS around 218 or 219 A.D. Traditionally the Romans had what was called the conventus matronalis, a Republican board of matrons who concerned themselves with questions of social or political etiquette. A senaculum was originally the meeting place of the senators when the SENATE was not in session. Elagabalus thus took this title and applied it to the conventus matronalis, when he empowered it with certain privileges, mainly the formal recognition of their decisions. They met on the Quirinal Hill.

¤ SENATE One of the oldest institutions in Rome, serving as a leading element in the emergence of the Republic from a minor political entity in Italy to the most powerful state in the world. This august body suffered degradations in the 1st century B.C. at the hands of Sulla and Julius CAESAR, and by the reign of AUGUSTUS (27 B.C.-14 A.D.) it was a mere instrument in the hands of the emperors. Although there would be moments of achievement during the imperial epoch, the Senate's era of glory had passed. As the first emperor, Augustus was shrewd enough to retain to the furthest possible degree the trappings of the Republic, including the Senate. Once he had cleansed it and made it his own through ADLECTIO (enrollment) and censorial privilege, he returned to it extensive powers. The Senate was still in charge of the AERARIUM (state treasury), governed or administered all provinces outside the control of the emperor, including Italy, retained the privilege of minting all copper COINAGE, and eventually had legal and legislative rights. One by one, however, its original duties were curtailed or usurped by the rulers. The aerarium was one of the first to go as the Senate grew utterly dependent upon the goodwill of the PRINCEPS. The emperor heeded the advice of the senators selectively and even the election of magistrates, which passed to the Senate from the people, was merely a reflection of imperial wishes.

A serious blow to the Senate was the degree of supremacy exercised over the selection of its members by the emperors. As the PRINCEPS SENATUS, the ruler applied the gift of adlectio to appoint senators, while all candidates for the senatorial class were first approved by the palace. Nevertheless, the CURSUS HONORUM was intact, as senators were enrolled only after a long and possibly distinguished career in the military or government. High posts throughout the Empire were often filled with them, a situation concretized by the transformation of the senatorial class into a hereditary one.

Clearly the Senate still had much to contribute to the Roman state. To be a senator was one of the greatest honors attainable in the Empire, and even the magistri militum of the Late Empire wanted to be members. The emperors referred many legal cases to the body, as it began hearing those trials once brought before the comitia. All kinds of crimes were presented: capital, MAIESTAS (treason), financial improprieties and appeals. In the 2nd century A.D. any appeal decided by the Senate could not be taken to the emperor for further consideration.

Other legislative functions passed into its hands. Through the SENATUS CONSULTUM the enactments of the Senate were declared fully law after the rule of HADRIAN. Further, they could debate many aspects of imperial policy, expressing the opinions of the senatorial order, popular views, or the fears of the upper classes. Emperors always sought the Senate's official granting of the princeps with the IMPERIUM.

Ironically, all of these roles were fulfilled wholly in a manner pleasing to the imperial court. Thus, laws were promulgated as per the desires of the emperor, trials always ended with a condemnation or an acquittal as was expected, and a successor to the throne usually was accepted because he possessed the most legions. A fascinating exception to this came in 238 A.D., when the Senate condemned MAXIMINUS i THRAX, first elevating GORDIAN I in Africa but later naming two senators, PUPIENUS and BALBINUS. Through the activity of the senators, Maximinus was killed. Unfortunately, neither Balbinus nor Pupienus carried enough political power to prevent their own assassinations after a reign of barely 100 days. An emperor could run the Empire quite effectively, either on good terms with the Senate (as in the case of TRAJAN) or on poor terms (as did HADRIAN). It mattered very little.

Increased centralization during the 2nd century A.D., the full development of the CONSILIUM PRINCIPIS, and the transfer of legal jurisdiction in many areas to both the PREFECT OF THE CITY and the Praetorian prefect, debilitated the Senate even more. In time all that remained was the distinct privilege of being a senator. There were many social advantages. Members wore a tunic with a broad purple stripe (the latus clavus) in front, woven into the material. They were given a short boot with a letter "C" on the front, meaning centum for the first 100 members. Senators were also honored with a feast, and vast wealth could be accumulated but was necessary because of the expenditure made while in office. The taxes on properties were crushing.

Aside from its normal schedule, the Senate could be convened at the will of the emperor by virtue of his position as Princeps Senatus. Whereas the number necessary for a legal assembly was 400, this was ended by Augustus, who made the figure dependent upon the importance of a subject. Political impotence and apathy combined to drive down attendance so that in time a mere 70 senators constituted an assembly.

Membership was for centuries exclusively Roman, becoming diluted slightly in the Republic's last stages with Italians entering. During the Empire, the fully Roman provinces made their contributions, especially HISPANIA and GALLIA NARBONENSIS. As with the family of Septimius SEVERUS, Africans took part by the late 2nd century, as did deserving wealthy candidates from the East.

Much as Augustus had chosen the Senate to be a recipient of superficial aggrandizement, so too did CONSTANTINE the Great three centuries later. Through the interweaving of the Equestrian Order (EQUITES) with that of the senatorial, there was a caste of officials for many administrative positions in the vast bureaucracy of the later imperial government. With such a large pool of candidates, the Senate in Rome increased in size but continued to lack real power as a body, mainly because of the creation of the Senate of Constantinople. The new Senate was made the equal of Rome in 359 A.D. It too had no real sway in the working of either empire, East or West.

It was a strange twist of fate that the Senate of Rome should outlive the emperors. That happened when Odoacer ended the reign of Romulus Augustulus in 476 A.D., terminating the Western Empire. He kept alive the Senate, liking its capacity to legitimize his own regime. The barbarian successors to Odoacer felt the same, at least until 603, when the Senate was last mentioned. Senators in the West showed the final embers of independence in the 4th and 5th centuries by defending their ancient paganism, most notably the Altar of Victory in the Curia. The Senate of CONSTANTINOPLE remained until the 9th century.

¤ SENATUS CONSULTUM The power of the Senate to make a declaration of its opinion to the magistrates of the state and thus influence law. In the days of the Republic, the senatus consultum was enacted by the consent of the senatorial body; while officially it was not law, the pronouncement carried with it the AUCTORITAS (authority) of the Senate. Thus the senatus consultum could be viewed as binding upon the people of Rome. As an instrument of imperial rule, the senatus consultum was changed first under Augustus and later under Hadrian. From the Augustan principate, the decree was far more potent legally, and henceforth bore the names of the CONSULS or other high figures. During the reign of Hadrian, the senatus consul-turn, included in praetor's edicts, came to be considered direct law. Through it, the emperor could change administrative systems or decide religious questions or other laws. The letters "S.C.," for senatus consultum, appeared normally on Roman imperial coins of the brass or copper species as that was under the care of the Senate. The letters did not appear on the imperial coinage of gold or silver, displaying the differentiation between the Senate and emperors in terms of minting.

¤ SENECA (Lucius Annaeus Seneca) (c. 5-65 A.D.) Poet, writer, one of the major literary figures and one of the foremost Stoic philosophers of the 1st century A.D. He was the son of SENECA THE ELDER and was born at Cordova, Spain. Taken to Rome as a youth, he studied rhetoric and philosophy while using the reputation of his father and the connections of his aunt to begin a senatorial career. Made a quaestor in 32, Seneca quickly acquired his own name as an orator and master of the pen, earning the jealous attack from GAIUS CALIGULA of being a "textbook orator" and "sand without lime." Having survived the despotism of Gaius, he was suddenly exiled to Corsica in 41 by Emperor CLAUDIUS, most likely at the urging of Empress MESSALLINA. While the cause is unclear, Seneca took the banishment quite poorly, and in un-Stoic letters to Polybius, an influential freedman, he pleaded for an end to the exile. This came only in 49 when AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER, now the most powerful figure in the palace, had him brought back to tutor her son, NERO. PRAETOR in 50, Seneca and the Praetorian Prefect Burrus were the two main ministers in Nero's government upon Claudius' death in 54. Through their influence the first years of the Neronian principate were stable, marked only by the ungraceful decline of Agrippina and Seneca's subtle reduction of her authority until her murder in 59, in which the minister was a passive participant.

Increasingly, Nero proved difficult to control, and both Seneca and Burrus lost political ground. With Burrus' death in 62 it was only a matter of time before the emperor decided that Seneca had outlived his usefulness. Of advancing age, Seneca retired, settling on his estates in Campania, as Nero sank into tyranny. In 65, Seneca, perhaps wrongly, was implicated in the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY and was allowed to choose the method of his death, settling finally, after a few failed attempts, on a lethal vapor bath. Twice married, his second wife was Pompeia Paulina.

Seneca had been attacked as a writer for being too eager a proponent of the gaudiness of the Silver Age of Roman literature. His was a conscious rejection of the past greatness of the Augustan Age, dressing his prose in an affected and overly decorated style. Nevertheless, the sheer volume of his work, stretching from prose to poetry, including satire, scientific studies and letters, is astounding.

Dialogi -> The dialogues of Seneca, written between 37 and 41 A.D., can be divided into two categories, philosophical examinations and consolations. His philosophic dialogues were: de Providentia (On Providence); de constantia spientis (On the Constancy of the Philosopher); de ira (On Anger); de vita beata (On the Happy Life), incomplete; de otio (On Leisure); de tranquillitate animi (On the Tranquility of the Spirit); de brevitae vita (On the Brevity of Life). Three consolationes, ad Polybium, ad Marciam and ad Helviam, were addressed to POLYBIUS, MARCIA and Helvia, his mother.

Other Prose Works -> Three treatises were composed that fell out of the scope of the Dialogi. They were: de dementia (On Clemency), written in 55-56 and surviving only in part, stressing the need for mercy in a ruler; de beneficiis (On Benefits), in seven books written after 56, covering benefits available to individuals; and Naturales Quaestiones (Natural Questions), possibly 62-64, addressed to Lucilius and discussing many phenomena of nature.

Epistulae morales -> 124 moral letters, in 20 books, were also addressed to Lucilius, presenting various aspects of Stoic and philosophical doctrine (64-65). There were once more than those now extant.

Satire -> Seneca's adaptation of the Menippean Satire, combining verse and prose, was used in his Apocolocyntosis, the so-called "Pumpkinification." Composed as a lampoon of Claudius' apotheosis (deification) in 54, the work was both bitter and deliberately cruel.

Tragedies -> As a poet, Seneca specialized in tragedies. He authored nine of them from the years 49 to 62. They were: Hercules (Furens), Troades, Phoenissae, Medea, Phaedra, Oedipus, Agamemnon, Thyestes and Hercules Oetaeus. A tenth, Octavia, was once ascribed to him but is generally considered the work of someone else. It is the only surviving praetexta (Roman tragic drama).

¤ SENECA THE ELDER (Lucius Annaeus Seneca) (c. 55 B.C.-41 A.D.) Rhetorician, writer, father of Seneca and Annaeus MELA and grandfather of LUCAN. Seneca was born in Cordova, Spain, to an Equestrian family, spending most of his life in Rome. The details of his life, beyond his marriage to Helvia, a Spanish woman, and his vast accumulated wealth, are unclear. He was, however, a prolific writer. He authored a (lost) history of the important events of his era but also penned from memory a vital collection on the declaimers. Dedicated to his sons, the compilation contained 10 books of Controversiae and seven books on Suasoriae. Each of the Controversiae had a preface, surveying various orations. Unfortunately, only a few excerpts survived. A 4th-century-A.o. Christian abridgement made a little more available, preserving the prefaces for Books 1, 2, 3 and 4. Even fewer of the Suasoriae are extant. Of the seven books but a few epigrams are known. As a writer, Seneca revealed himself as capable of humor and careful thought.

¤ SENECIO, CLAUDIUS (d. 65 A.D.) Son of a freedman; in the service of the emperors and a confidant of Emperor NERO. In 55 A.D. he joined OTHO, another friend of the ruler, in the conspiracy to hide Nero's affair with the woman ACTE. He apparently fell out of favor (as did Otho) and next appeared as a member of the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY to murder Nero in 65. Discovered, Senecio was promised a pardon by his former patron. He thus revealed name after name but was put to death anyway.

¤ SENECIO, HERENNIUS (d. c. 93 A.D.) An ADVOCATUS and biographer from Hispania Baetica. He never pursued a public career beyond the office of QUAESTOR but was highly successful in his legal pursuits. He also authored a work on HELVIDIUS PRISCUS and was probably put to death by Emperor DOMITIAN for it.

¤ SENECIO, SOSIUS (fl. late 1st century A.D.) CONSUL in 99 and 107 A.D.; a confidant of TRAJAN, who earned from him a statue in his honor in 110. He was also a friend of PLINY THE YOUNGER and was the recipient of several dedications by Plutarch in his Lives. Little else is known of him.

¤ SENTIUS, GNAEUS (fl. early 1st century A.D.) Successor to Gnaeus Calpurnius PISO as governor of SYRIA in 19 A.D. Sentius was chosen by the legates and senators in Syria to assume control of the province following the death of GERMANICUS. He proved very firm, refusing to give Piso any favors and even sent the alleged prisoner, Martina, to Rome to take part in the inevitable trial against Piso and his wife, PLANCINA. When the former governor attempted to reclaim his office, Sentius defeated his plans, placing him on a ship for Rome.

¤ SEPTEMVIRI The so-called Board of the Seven, one of the leading PRIESTHOODS of ROME. Originally known as the Epulones, they were created in 196 B.C. to aid the PONTIFICES in their duties. Specifically, they organized the banquets (the epulum) on the Capitoline Hill in honor of the Capitoline deities. Later the collegium epulonum assumed the task of superintending the public amusements whenever the SENATE ceremoniously dined on the Capitoline, normally as part of the Ludi Romani (see LUDI).

When founded, the priests were known as the tresviri epulones as there were three of them. This number was increased to seven, and the name septemviri epulones was henceforth used, even after Julius CAESAR had added three more members. The septemviri were still in existence in the 4th century but eventually faded in the wake of Christianity. See LUDI and PAGANISM.

¤ SEQUANI One of the large tribes inhabiting GALLIA Belgica in the 1st century B.C. They suffered very severe deprivations at the hands of the chieftain ARIOVISTUS and welcomed his defeat by Rome. Through a broad alliance with the Germans, however, they succeeded in acquiring supremacy over the federated tribes of the AEDUI. This brief reign was ended by Caesar's conquests in Gallia Belgica. Subsequently their territory along the Seine was part of the Roman province of Gaul. The district of the Sequani was called Maxima Sequanorum.

¤ SERAPIS Deity who became a fixture in the pantheon of Ptolemaic EGYPT and was later popular throughout the Roman Empire. Serapis (also Sarapis) was created through the patronage of Ptolemy I of Egypt, who combined the Memphite religious idea concerning the spirit of the APIS Bull with Osiris, lending body to the new deity with a huge statue. The worship of Serapis became connected with that of other, more Greek deities, especially Zeus. Manifestations varied, depending upon the preference of the worshippers. He was Aesclepius, and hence god of healing, or Jupiter, supreme god, or even Osiris-Hades-Pluton as the god of death. The popularity of Serapis during the Republic and the early imperial age was limited to Egypt and to parts of Greece. With the spread of other cults, however, especially Serapis' superior rival, isis, the cult found fertile ground in Mediterranean ports, in the East and finally in the West. A temple to the divinity was constructed in York (see BRITANNIA) while the famed Serapeum in ALEXANDRIA, with its host of cultic altars, served as the center for the Roman world.

ROME did not grant permission for Serapis to enter the city until the reign of GAIUS CALIGULA (c. 37 A.D.). Henceforth the emperors of the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. supported Serapis enthusiastically. By the 3rd century Romans were ardent believers, most notably in the so-called ZeusHelios-Serapis or Serapis, the Sun god Jupiter. This form lasted until the annihilation of the cult by Christians in the 4th century. The destruction of the Serapeum in Alexandria was one of the mortal blows to organized PAGANISM in the Roman Empire.

¤ SERENA (d. 408 A.D.) Niece of Emperor THEODOSIUS I and wife of the MAGISTER MILITUM, STILICHO; extremely unpopular in the courts of both ROME and CONSTANTINOPLE. She wed Stilicho sometime before 385, bearing him children who were to be linked by marriage to the imperial household: Maria and Aemilia Materna Thermantia both married HONORIUS, while a son was mentioned as a possible husband to GALLA PLACIDIA. Her general treatment of pagans and her ambitions for her husband were enough to cause lasting dislike. When Stilicho was murdered in 408, she was put to death, mainly out of fear of her dealings with the VISIGOTHS' King ALARIC.

¤ SERVIANUS, JULIUS (Lucius Julius Ursus Servianus) (d. 136 A.D.) Consul in 90, 120 and 134 A.D. and the public figure generally considered the heir apparent during the reign of HADRIAN (117-138). Like his great patron, Emperor TRAJAN, Servianus was a Spaniard, attaining the trust of both Trajan and his predecessor, NERVA. Appointed by Nerva in 98 to the governorship of Germania Inferior, he already possessed great political power as a senator. Trajan used Servianus extensively, naming him governor of PANNONIA and granting him important commands against the Dacians. He became a member of the imperial family by marrying Domitia Paulina, sister of Hadrian. By 136, Hadrian was increasingly ill and looking for a successor. Servianus was too old at 90 to be considered but not so feeble as to be viewed as no longer a threat to stability. To ensure a smooth transition of power, Hadrian ordered his death and that of his grandson, Gnaeus Fuscus. It was reported that Servianus exclaimed before his execution that "my only prayer is that Hadrian lingers for a long time, praying for death but unable to die."

¤ SERVIUS (fl. early 5th century A.D.) Grammarian who was included by MACROBIUS in the Saturnalia and authored a major work on VIRGIL. The commentaries on Virgil are extant in two versions. The first, certainly by the hand of Servius, was a short treatise centering on the grammar, diction and style of Virgil, while the second was longer, with additions and quotations of other writers. Called the schola Danielis, it was probably composed much later by a Christian. Servius himself was possibly a pagan.

¤ SESTERTIUS (Also sestertii or sesterces) One of the major species of Roman imperial COINAGE; the main coin of silver, worth approximately one-quarter the value of the DENARIUS. Originally issued during the Republic, its first minting was traditionally set in 296 B.C., when it bore a worth of two asses. With the monetary reforms of Emperor Augustus, the sestertius replaced the AS as a silver coin. Subsequently it was the most widely distributed money in the Roman Empire, earning the name nummus or the "coin." It suffered in the economic crisis of the 3rd century A. D. and was dropped altogether as a form of currency after the usurper Postumus made a last issue during the years 259-267.

¤ SEVERA, AQUILIA See ELAGABALUS.

¤ SEVERA, AURELIA (d. 213 A.D.) One of the four VESTAL VIRGINS put to death by Emperor CARACALLA in 213 A.D. for crimes of unchastity. Along with Pomponia Rufina and Clodia Laeta, she was buried alive. See also CANNUTIA CRESCENTIA.

¤ SEVERIANUS, P. ALEIUS (fl. late 2nd century A.D.) Roman legate in charge of the defense of Armenia against PARTHIA in 161 A.D. He was notable for his complete failure in preventing the invasion of the country by VOLOGASES in and for leading virtually an entire legion to its destruction near Elegeia. His resounding defeat brought Lucius VERUS to the East, precipitating a major war with Parthia in 163. See ARSACIDS.

¤ SEVERUS (1) See CELER AND SEVERUS.

¤ SEVERUS (2) (fl. 1st century A.D.) Named prefect of Egypt during the reign of TIBERIUS, in 32 A.D. Also called Hiberus, he did not come from the usual ranks of the Equestrians (EQUITES) but was a freedman. This was a singularly unusual appointment.

¤ SEVERUS I See SEVERUS, SEPTIMIUS.

¤ SEVERUS II (Flavius Valerius Severus) (d. 307 A.D.) Joint emperor from 306 to 307; was an Illyrian soldier and a close friend of Emperor GALERIUS. When Galerius was promoted from Caesar to Augustus in 305 (see TETRARCHY) he nominated Severus as his replacement. This move gave Galerius a powerful hold over the Roman Empire, for the other Caesar, Maximinus II Daia, was also a supporter. The new Augustus, CONSTANTIUS I CHLORUS, was seemingly outnumbered. Severus' sphere of control was Italy, AFRICA and, later, PANNONIA. One year later, Constantius died in Britain, and Galerius used his authority to elevate Severus to the rank of Augustus in the West. Constantine, Constantius' son, was appointed as his Caesar. This infuriated MAXENTIUS, the son of the old Augustus, Maximian. In 307 Maxentius found allies in Rome and was proclaimed emperor. Galerius sent instructions to Severus to march from Milan to Rome. His campaign was a disaster. Retreating to Milan, he surrendered to Maximian, who had come out of retirement. Galerius took to the field, and upon his entering Italy Severus was put to death by his captors.

¤ SEVERUS, LUCIUS CATILIUS (fl. 2nd century A.D.) CONSUL in 110 and 120 A.D., an imperial officer and the greatgrandfather of MARCUS AURELIUS. Severus was of a distinguished senatorial family, embarking on a highly successful career as proconsul of Asia, praefectus aerari militaris, praefectus aerari Saturni and legate of CAPPADOCIA from 114 to 117, where he fought in TRAJAN'S Parthian campaign. In favor with HADRIAN, he was put in charge of SYRIA in 117, holding the post until around 119. After serving as consul for a second time, he was made proconsul of AFRICA before being appointed PREFECT OF THE CITY in 138. Upon the adoption of Antoninus Pius as Hadrian's heir, Severus was reportedly so disappointed at not being named that Hadrian removed him from his post.

¤ SEVERUS, SEPTIMIUS (Lucius Septimus Severus) (145-211 A.D.)

Septimius Severus, from a statue of the emperor

SEVERUS, SEPTIMIUS (Lucius Septimus Severus) (145-211 A.D.) Emperor from 193 to 211; he proved an important ruler and the founder of a dynasty that influenced the Roman Empire from 193 to 235. He was born at LEPCIS MAGNA in Tripolitania, to Publius Septimius Geta and Fulvia Pia, both members of successful families in the Equestrians (EQUITES) and the SENATE. After an unclear early career he became a QUAESTOR of Rome around 169, later returning to Lepcis Magna, where he married Paccia Marciana, who died childless after several years. The TRIBUNE of the Plebs in 174, he was PRAETOR in 177 and a legate in SYRIA by 180. Emperor COMMODUS removed him after approximately two years.

The major turning point in his advancement came in 184 when he was reinstated as an imperial favorite, receiving the post of governor of Gallia Lugdunensis and several years later of Sicily; he was also married, to the formidable

Julia Domna, the Syrian noblewoman who gave him two sons, CARACALLA in 188 and GETA in 189. Consul in 190, he was made governor of PANNONIA Superior in 191. Severus was still there in 192 when Commodus was assassinated and succeeded by Pertinax. The new emperor did not last long, and his death in 193 resulted in the auctioning off of the Empire by the PRAETORIAN GUARD to DIDIUS JULIANUS, the highest bidder. Knowing that the sanctity of the throne had been violated, that omens and prophecies had predicted his rise to the purple and that he had the perfect solution militarily, Severus accepted the SALUTATIO from his troops. Hailed at Carnuntum, he and his legions marched to ROME, where Didius Julianus was sentenced to death and executed by the Senate. Once in the capital he entrenched himself politically by disbanding the Guard and forming a new, larger one with the select soldiery of the Danubian legions. The VIGILES and URBAN COHORTS were increased in size as well.

His position as emperor was not universally accepted, for PESCENNIUS NIGER, governor of Syria, claimed the Empire, and CLODIUS ALBINUS, governor of Britain, was another obvious candidate. To gain time against the more dangerous Niger, Severus offered Albinus the rank of Caesar, with the obvious implication that he would be the heir. Albinus accepted this position, allowing Severus to launch his war with Niger. Crushing the Eastern claimant at the battle of issus in 194, Severus turned on Albinus in 196, and at LUGDUNUM (Lyon) the governor of Britain was destroyed. Severus was now sole master of the Roman world, but the civil war had caused great ruin, both in terms of fighting and in the political executions necessary to bring the Senate and bureaucracy under heel. Once he had liquidated all possible enemies, Caracalla was designated as his heir, later joined by Geta.

There was little time to enjoy the comforts of Rome for war with Parthia was deemed essential. From 197 to 199, he waged a successful war of vengeance against Parthia for its support of Niger. CTESIPHON, the capital, fell, and MESOPOTAMIA was seized and became a Roman province. Visits to Syria and Africa ended in 203 with a triumphal return to Rome. In celebration of his tenth imperial year, two arches were erected, one in Lepcis Magna and the other in Rome. The gift to Lepcis was typical of his attentions to African cities, especially his hometown, which would know no brighter moment. From 203 until 207/8, Severus remained at Rome, falling under the influence of his own Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD, PLAUTIANUS. Plaurianus was allowed vast powers until 205, when Caracalla, who was forced to marry the prefect's daughter, led a coup that brought down the ambitious minister.

Troubles appeared in Britain as the local tribes, especially the Caledonians, had pushed beyond the WALL OF ANTONINUS. In 208, Severus and Caracalla invaded Caledonia while Julia Domna and Geta remained behind at Eburacum (York). Fighting relieved the pressure on the frontier but did not make a long-lasting impression. Planning another attack, Severus fell ill at Eburacum in 211 and died. He had taken care to promote Geta as Caracalla's equal, reportedly telling them both on his deathbed: "Cooperate with each other, pay the soldiers and hate everyone else." His plea was well in keeping with the policies of the Severan regime. The legions now numbered 33, with vast units of NUMERI or irregular troops. The army, especially the centurions and officers, was deliberately cultivated to be loyal totally to the central government-namely, the emperor himself. He had won the throne because of them and never forgot where his true source of authority rested.

Futher, the power of the imperial administration was widened throughout the Empire, as was seen in the field of law. When Plautianus fell, his replacements would include the eminent jurists ULPIAN and PAPINIAN. Both did much to improve Roman legalism while Julia Domna kept alive intellectualism and artistry in the midst of a seemingly martial reign. Ultimately, Severus helped provide enough stability to the Empire to ensure its survival, even in the hands of Caracalla and in the crises of the 3rd century A.D.

¤ SEVERUS, SEXTUS JULIUS (Consul in 127 A.D.) Governor in numerous provinces under Emperor HADRIAN and one of the finest generals in the Roman Empire. Severus was a member of the Equestrians (EQUITES) from Dalmatia. After serving as legate in MOESIA and CAPPADOCIA, he was sent to Britain as its governor. Known by Hadrian to be reliable, he was ordered (c. 132) to JUDAEA to take command of the legions there in the campaign to suppress the rebellion of Simon BAR COCHBA. From 132 to 135 he waged a ruthless but successful campaign in PALAESTINA, crushing the uprising while devastating the prince. With pacification complete, he was made the first governor of Syria Palestine.

¤ SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 363-420 A.D.) Christian historian; born in Aquitania, Severus came from a noble family, studying law before converting to CHRISTIANITY around 389. When his wife died in 392, he retired to the life of a monk, transforming his estates into an ascetic haven under the influence of St. MARTIN OF TOURS. After a brief involvement with Pelagianism, he died sometime around 420. He was the author of two important histories. One was a biography of St. Martin, composed during Martin's life but finished and published after the saint's death. The other, more important work, was a universal chronicle covering Christian events from creation to 400 A.D. In excellent Latin, it is a useful source on the events of the 4th century, especially Priscillianism (see PRISCILLIAN).

¤ SEVERUS ALEXANDER, MARCUS AURELIUS (Marcus Julius Gessius Alexianus Bassianus) (208-235 A.D.) Emperor from 222 to 235; born in a town in Phoenicia, the son of Gessius Marcianus and JULIA MAMAEA, the daughter of JULIA MAESA. As the cousin of Emperor ELAGABALUS, Severus Alexander received not only an education in being a priest of the sun god but also a stable and normal Roman upbringing. This was of importance as Elagabalus' eccentricities convinced Julia Maesa and Julia Mamaea that he had to be removed. Through Maesa's influence, Elagabalus adopted his younger cousin in 221, giving him the title Caesar and PRINCEPS IUVENTUTIS and the new name, Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander. By 222 they were joint consuls, and Severus Alexander enjoyed greater popularity with the Senate and the PRAETORIAN GUARD. Elagabalus grew jealous, and his attempts at removing his cousin from power ended in his assassination by the Guard. Severus Alexander then assumed the throne.

It was the unfortunate image of the reign that Severus Alexander was dominated by the formidable women of the imperial palace, most notably the Julias. While they cultivated a series of sound policies, the apparent weakness of the emperor eventually cost him his life. Julia Maesa was at first the leading figure in the Roman Empire, until her death in 223. Shortly thereafter, the brilliant jurist and Praetorian Prefect ULPIAN was murdered by his own troops, and the imperial house lost an invaluable advisor.

Julia Mamaea stepped forward to direct policy. In 225 she arranged a marriage between her son and the noblewoman Barbia Orbiana. Within two years, however, the new empress had been driven out of Rome and her father put to death. Bearing the title AUGUSTA and Mother of the Emperor and the Camp and the Senate, Julia initiated in her son's name stern fiscal reforms to restore the financial strength of the Roman world. The SENATE was given a larger role in government and an enlarged CONSILIUM PRINCIPIS (council of advisors) provided advice.

All was not well on the frontiers, and the newly formed Persian Empire of the Sassanids required the emperor's attention. A campaign was waged in 232 with such success that upon his return to ROME Severus Alexander laid claim to the title of Persicus Maximus. Word soon arrived from the DANUBE that the tribes in the region, especially the Alamanni, were threatening the provinces. The emperor and his mother set out in 234 with the legions but soon infuriated the troops by their insistence on negotiations. MAXIMINUS I THRAX was proposed as a rival for the throne, and the soldiers murdered both Severus Alexander and Julia Mamaea. His death signalled the age of the soldier emperors.

¤ SEXTUS CAESAR (d. 46 B.C.) Cousin of Julius CAESAR who was appointed by the dictator to be the governor of SYRIA in 47 B.C. At his disposal was a legion to keep the peace, although the name of Caesar was far more valuable. Despite the support of the Jews, Quintus Caecilius BASSUS, an officer once in the service of POMPEY THE GREAT, arrived in 46. He stirred up the troops at Tyre, and in the resulting mutiny Sextus was killed.

¤ SHAPUR I (d. 272 A.D.) King of PERSIA; the second ruler of the SASSANID DYNASTY and the Persian Empire, from 241 to 272. Assuming the throne at a time of great vitality in Persia and of instability in Rome, he was the son of the famous ARDASHIR, who died in 241. Although he was not crowned until 242, he immediately seized the initiative and campaigned against the numerous states within the Persian domain. With the title "King of Kings," he then embarked upon a bitter war with the Roman Empire, from 241 to 244. Philip the Arab made peace with him. After subjugating the wild peoples of Media, he returned to the Roman provinces with an army. Armenia was invaded in 250 and SYRIA attacked two years later. With a combination of his power and the exploitation of Rome's weakness, Persian influence was spread over much of the East. Only Emperor VALERIAN, starting in 257, could march to oppose him. In 259-260, at the battle of EDESSA, the unlucky Valerian was captured, humiliated and then put to death.

This major triumph was long remembered by the Persians. Shapur attempted to follow up this achievement with a direct assault upon ASIA MINOR, but in 262 a new opponent had emerged, ODAENATH of PALMYRA. The following years were filled with savage fighting, until (c. 267) ARMENIA had been lost and Shapur was in dire military straits. Defeats at the hands of Odaenath ended the king's ambitions for expansion.

Shapur was considered a cruel and grasping monarch. Nevertheless, he gave to his subjects a general freedom of worship, including the Christians and the Jews. The religious cult leader, Mani, found in Shapur an interested and sympathetic patron. Upon Shapur's death in 272, he left Hormazd ARDASHIR, his son, a stable government.

¤ SHAPUR II (d. 379 A.D.) Ruler of the Persian Empire from 309 to 379; son of HORMAZD n, he came to the throne when still an infant. His mother acted as regent while relying upon the Persian nobility for political support. Growing up, Shapur kept in contact with Emperor CONSTANTINE the Great, sending embassies to him in 324 and 337. Upon reaching maturity, the King of Kings strove to gain total control of his empire, defeating the nobles who challenged his authority. Once possessing supremacy in the palace, he made war upon the Roman Empire, starting with an invasion of Mesopotamia around 336. Until 363, fighting continued, varying only in intensity or with brief rounds of peace. Battles raged over the East, in ARMENIA and MESOPOTAMIA, although a favorable treaty was secured from Jovian, following the death in the field of Emperor JULIAN in 363. He was succeeded by his brother, ARDASHIR II.

¤ SHAPUR III (d. 388 A.D.) King of PERSIA from 383 to 388; the son of SHAPUR II, he became ruler upon the overthrow of his uncle, ARDASHIR II, by the Persian nobility. His reign was notable for the peace that was made with Emperor THEODOSIUS I around 384-386. See also PERSIA; SASSANID DYNASTY.

¤ SHIPS Seagoing vessels were improved and modernized during the imperial epoch as a result of Rome's expansion throughout the Mediterranean, the continued work of the Alexandrian shipbuilders and the large amounts of capital spent by Roman merchants. Although there were many differently rigged and designed vessels, most of them served either as merchant vessels or warships.

» Merchant Ships

Traditionally, the vessels designed for commerce and trade were shorter, wider and of a heavier build than their military counterparts. Being stouter in design, such ships were more seaworthy in all weather, especially when filled with goods. As their purpose was purely economic, space was devoted to storage instead of weapons or implements of war. Oars were normally limited in number, as the crews were small. Merchantmen relied upon sails, using oars only for maneuvering in special situations or in an emergency. These limitations made merchant ships easy prey for a quick attack, even in convoys, although in a good wind and with enough warning sails made them faster. For defense they required assistance from the navy of Rome.

» Warships

Roman warship

The Roman fleets that were created for the Punic Wars were, for the most part, based on Carthaginian design. CARTHAGE boasted the powerful ship called by Rome the quinquereme, or "Five," so named because of the five banks of oars used to propel it. By the end of the wars with Carthage, this was the principal design used by Roman builders. Afterward and up to the battle of ACTIUM, warships tended to be bigger and even heavier.

Octavian (AUGUSTUS) and his gifted admiral, Marcus AGRIPPA, chose to counter the heavy warships of Marc ANTONY and Cleopatra off the coast of Actium in 31 B.C. with a new naval strategy. Agrippa's fleet was composed of faster, lighter triremes and the so-called liburnicae, vessels constructed by the builders of LIBURNIA in ILLYRICUM. Agrippa's brilliant tactics, the HARPAX (a special weapon for attacking and damaging enemy vessels) and the internal disorder of the Egyptian fleet contributed to Octavian's decisive victory. The battle of Actium ushered in a new era for the Roman world and signalled the supremacy of the trireme and liburnicae in the Roman imperial navy. These ships became the mainstay of the naval arm, although there were also smaller transports, privateers and cutters, all of Greek design.

No longer concerned with massive warfare, Rome was now preoccupied with safeguarding the seas against infrequent but dangerous piratic activity and the defense of the merchants. This policy was successful only so long as the navy was capable of mounting operations. With the eventual deterioration of the navy, the Mediterranean and the north coast of Gallia and Germania became susceptible to aggressive piracy by the VANDALS of AFRICA and the SAXONS in GERMANIA, both in the 5th century A.D.

Typically, all warships were decorated with eyes painted on their bows just above the beak, the ram (rostrum) of three spikes used to smash an opponent or to destroy enemy oars. The corvus was attached to the bow during the Punic Wars; it was a boarding plank with another spike that connected the quinquereme to the enemy vessel. Agrippa's harpax replaced the corvus, proving more effective in combat, especially when used by the lighter ships in Octavian's fleet.

The trireme and the liburnicae were based on the older Greek pentekontos, which had reigned for centuries as the supreme weapon of naval warfare. On average, the trireme was some 110 feet long and 12 feet wide, with a crew of 200, not including detachments of marines. The quinquereme (also spelled quinquireme) was around 120 feet long and 20 feet wide, with a crew of 300, not including marines. If the quinquereme was big, the deceres was huge. This dreadnought was the fashion toward the end of the 1st century B.C. and could be considered the apex of massive ship building. It stretched 145 feet and was 20 feet wide, with a crew of nearly 600. Its value was limited tactically, as Antony, who had several at Actium, discovered. The triremes of Octavian and Agrippa proved victorious and set the naval standard for the next age.

¤ SIBYL

The Sibyl of Cumae, from the Sistine Chapel

SIBYL Name given by the Romans to a famous group of prophetesses. By tradition the first Sibyl (plural, Sibyllae) was the daughter of Dardanus and Neso. Subsequently, the number of her namesakes were placed at three, four, 10 and even 14. None of these other Sibyls could match in importance the one at Cumae in Italy. The Sibyl of Cumae offered to King Tarquinius Superbus nine books of prophecies for 300 gold pieces. This price was reached after she burned six of them. The remaining volumes became the SIBYLLINE BOOKS.

¤ SIBYLLINE BOOKS The legendary books of prophecy sold to King Tarquinius Superbus by the SIBYL of Cumae. Precisely when or how the Sybilline Books were written was never clear to the Romans, but the three volumes of prophetic verse became extremely important to the welfare of the Roman state. Entrusted to the quindecemviri, the Sibylline books were consulted at various times by the Senate. Whenever calamity, pestilence, unrest or defeats took place, they were opened to determine the meaning of such events. Decisions of war or peace might be affected greatly by the poems inside, and the words of the Sibyl were taken seriously.

The Sibyllini Libri continued as a part of the life of the imperial era. In the care of the quindecemviri, the volumes were recopied in 18 B.C. at the order of Augustus as the original libri had been destroyed by fire in 83 B.C. Increasingly, however, the verses were not taken seriously, and by the end of the 4th century A.D., CHRISTIANITY attacked them as being obvious symbols of PAGANISM. Finally, during the reign of Emperor HONORIUS (395-423) the MAGISTER MILITUM, STILICHO, burned them. Interestingly, in the days of the Empire a group of Jews and Christians produced their own version of the Sibylline Books, called the Sibylline Oracles.

¤ SICILIA (Sicily) Province of the Empire; the large island at the southern tip of Italia's boot. Sicilia was called Thrinacia or Trinacria, but was known to the Romans as Triquetra because of its shape; according to tradition, the first resident was the Cyclops. The beautiful, fertile island was contested by virtually every major Mediterranean culture, but the name Sicilia was derived from the tribe of the Siceli or Sicani. They were joined by Cretans, Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginian colonists. The later seafaring states of Greek origin fought bitterly with CARTHAGE for years. Sicilia's western regions fell into Roman hands with the end of the First Punic War in 241 B.C., and the eastern part in 211 B.C. Sicilia, ROME'S first imperial possession, was placed under the care of a PRAETOR and eventually a proconsul. Roman occupation was made somewhat easier by the granting of Latin rights (lus LATH) by Caesar. AUGUSTUS placed limits on these but augmented the Latinization with full promotion to colonial status and the creation of numerous colonies of veterans.

The natural wealth and economic potential of the island were legendary. So rich in wheat and corn were its fields that it was known to be an abode of the goddess Ceres. There grains were produced in abundance, while other exports included fruits, almonds, honey and wine. In purpose the province fulfilled a role similar to that of Sardinia, as a breadbasket for Italy and Rome. After the war of 36 B.C. and the defeat of Sextus POMPEY by Octavian (AUGUSTUS) and Marcus AGRIPPA, the island settled into a general tranquility for many years. SYRACUSE, an ancient city, was made the provincial capital. By the 5th century A.D., Roman protection had deteriorated. The VANDALS of GEISERIC attacked the province, and, after the fall of the Western Empire in 476, the OSTROGOTHS laid claim to it.

¤ SIDONIUS APOLLINARIS (Gaius Sollius Apollinaris Sidonius) (c. 430-479 A.D.) One of the last great orators and poets of the Roman Empire. An associate of the final emperors of the West, and a superb panegyricist, Sidonius was born to a noble senatorial family at Lugdunum (Lyon), proving an excellent student. By marriage to Papianilla, daughter of Emperor AVITUS, he became connected to the imperial family when his father-in-law was crowned in July 455. In his honor, Sidonius delivered a panegyric on New Year's day, this latter receiving as a reward a statue in the Forum of Trajan. After the fall of Avitus, Sidonius eventually accepted the successor, MAJORIAN, composing another panegyric at Lugdunum in 458. He held some office in Rome until 461, when he returned to Gallia Lugdunensis. This semi-retirement was ended in 467 when he headed a delegation to the court of Anthemius. In early 468 he delivered a third panegyric and was made PREFECT OF THE CITY before going home. Offered the post of bishop of Auvergne in 469, he accepted, working to counter the influence of the advancing GOTHS. This opposition led to his brief imprisonment in 475, when the Gothic King Euric was ceded Auvergne. Euric released him and even allowed him to return to his ecclesiastical duties. Tired and ill, Sidonius died around 479.

Sidonius Apollinaris was the author of more than these three panegyrics. In the Carmina these addresses were preserved (in reverse chronological order) along with a large number of poems. He also communicated with friends and associates, through Letters. In style he was neither original nor flawless, but he provided an important glimpse of life at the time of the dying Western Empire. See also SYMMACHUS.

¤ SILANA, JUNIA (d. after 59 A.D.) Wife of Gaius SILlus (2) who was forced to divorce her by the order of Empress MESSALLINA in 47 A.D. Junia Silana was, according to the historian Tacitus, a high-born, lovely woman, wealthy but abandoned. After the divorce she became a dear friend of AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER. Their relationship soured in 55, when Agrippina, jealous of Silana's qualities, frightened away Sextius Africanus, a prospective husband. Vowing revenge, Silana used two clients, Iturius and Calvisius, to accuse Agrippina of planning to raise up Rubellius Plautus to the throne. Through a spirited defense Agrippina secured her acquittal and the punishment of the plotters. Silana was banished. After the death of Agrippina in 59, she was allowed to return to Italy, dying at her estates in Tarentum.

¤ SILANUS, D. JUNIUS TORQUATUS (d. 64 A.D.) A descendant of Augustus during the reign of NERO, Silanus was put to death by the emperor. Nero killed him because he refused to allow members of the family of AUGUSTUS to survive in his reign. See also RUBELLIUS PLAUTUS.

¤ SILANUS, LUCIUS JUNIUS (d. 49 A.D.) PRAETOR in 48 A.D., the son of Aemilia Lepida and hence a descendant of AUGUSTUS. Although young, he was allowed to hold a magistracy five years before his time and was betrothed to OCTAVIA, daughter of CLAUDIUS. This proposed union was immediately attacked as dishonorable because of accusations that he had committed incest with his sister, Junia Calvina. A further threat came in the person of AGRIPPINA THE YOUNGER, who was conspiring to have her son Nero wed Octavia. Always impressionable, Claudius listened to the charges and terminated the betrothal. Silanus was then expelled from the SENATE and forced to resign from the praetorship. On the day of Claudius's wedding to Agrippina (in 49) he killed himself.

¤ SILANUS, M. JUNIUS (d. 54 A.D.) The brother of Lucius Junius SILANUS, the PROCONSUL of Asia in 54; held the distinction of being the first victim of NERO'S reign. The historian TACITUS reported that he died because AGRIPPINA feared his reputation as being more capable as emperor than Nero. Nonetheless, Silanus was so sluggish that he had the nickname of "the golden Sheep." He had also been CONSUL in 46.

¤ SILIQUA A silver coin (plural, siliquae) issued from the time of CONSTANTINE the Great (c. 312 A.D.). It served as one of the foundations of the reorganized currency of the Late Empire, being worth approximately one-twenty-fourth the value of the gold SOLIDUS. Siliquae were minted for centuries after the fall of the Western Empire. See COINAGE.

¤ SILIUS, GAIUS (1) (d. 24 A.D.) Consul in 13 A.D. and a successful legate of Germania Superior, from 14 to 21 A.D.; one of the most competent generals in the service of Emperor TIBERIUS. In 15-16 he aided GERMANICUS in his German campaign, conducting operations against the CHATTI. In 21 he destroyed the rebel SACROVIR. For his victory over the Chatti he was awarded the triumphal insignia. Tiberius apparently resented his achievements, the loyalty of his troops to him personally and his friendship with GERMANICUS. Silius was charged with various offenses and committed suicide in 24.

¤ SILIUS, GAIUS (2) (d. 48 A.D.) Son of Gaius SILIUS (1) suffered an unhappy youth but was considered the most handsome man in Rome during the reign of CLAUDIUS. His good looks attracted the attention of Empress MESSALLINA, who, in 47, developed such a passion for him that he was forced to divorce his wife, Junia SILANA. Consul-designate, he seemingly joined their affair with ardor, and in 48, he and Messallina were married in a mock ceremony. The inevitable uproar brought down Messallina, and Silius went to his death without delay, asking only that it be swift.

¤ SILIUS ITALICUS, TIBERIUS CATIUS ASCONIUS (c. 26-101 A.D.) A remarkable epic poet who authored the longest Latin work, the Punica. Silius Italicus was probably from Spain but the place of his birth remains unclear. An accomplished orator, he was an associate of both PLINY THE YOUNGER and MARTIAL, attaining notoriety as a lawyer but also as an informer during the reign of Nero. CONSUL in 68, he was a supporter of VITELLIUS. Under the Flavians (69-96 A.D.) he held the post of proconsul of Asia (in 77), gaining praise for his stable regime. Retiring to Campania and ROME, Silius purchased an old estate of CICERO'S, repaired VIRGIL'S tomb and amassed a great collection of books. He died in a state of self-induced starvation because of a terminal illness. Silius Italicus probably began writing after his retirement, bringing a Stoic-influenced outlook to his work. In style he imitated very closely his contemporary, LUCAN, while relying on a disciplined technical method of versification. The Punica was a vast epic in 12,200 lines and 17 books, covering the Second Punic War. His main source was LIVY.

¤ SILK ROUTE Traditionally, the great trade route between the West and the sources of silk, spices and unique products in India. During the Roman Empire, an early version of the Silk Route ran through the Parthian Empire and such cities as PETRA, ANTIOCH, DOURA and EDESSA. Full economic links were in place from the 1st and 3rd centuries A.D. Decline in the financial health of the Roman world and hostility from the Persians terminated the system, not to be revived for several centuries.

¤ SILVA, FLAVIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) Governor of JUDAEA in 73 A.D. and the successor of Lucilius Bassus as general in charge of suppressing the remnants of the Jewish Rebellion. He was thus faced with the difficult task of besieging the fortress of MASADA, capturing it on May 2, 73. He served as CONSUL in 81.

¤ SILVANUS (fl. mid-4th century A.D.) MAGISTER PEDITUM in Gaul from around 352 to 355 and a brief usurper in 355. Of Frankish descent, Silvanus was originally a supporter of MAGNENTIUS, but deserted him in 351 for CONSTANTIUS n, before the battle of MURSA MAJOR. Rewarded with the rank of magister peditum in 352/3, he served in Gaul but found himself under attack by enemies in the court. Faced with a forged letter claiming his ambitions for the throne, he had little choice but to rebel against the injustice. His troops at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) proclaimed him emperor. Constantius sent Ursucinus to crush him but learned of Silvanus' loyalty too late. The emperor spared Silvanus' son.

¤ SILVANUS, GAIUS (d. c. 65 A.D.) A TRIBUNE of the PRAETORIAN GUARD during the reign of NERO. In 65, he became a member of the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY but was not revealed as a plotter for he was sent to question SENECA (the Younger) about his possible role. Silvanus later returned to inform Seneca that he would die. Although acquitted, the officer eventually killed himself.

¤ SIMILIS, S. SULPICIUS (d. c. 124 A.D.) Prefect of the PRAETORIAN GUARD during the last years of TRAJAN'S reign. He began his career as a soldier in the Guard, becoming a centurion before moving up the Equestrian ladder. He was PREFECT OF THE GRAIN, prefect of Egypt and finally Praetorian prefect. When HADRIAN came to the throne in 117, Similis requested permission to retire because of his advanced age. The emperor agreed reluctantly, and Similis retreated to his estate in the country, where he died after seven peaceful years.

¤ SINOPE Important and old city situated on the northern, Black Sea coast of ASIA MINOR, in the region of PAPHLAGONIA. Once the largest of the Greek colonies in the area, the city retained its status and wealth even after occupation by ROME. At the time of Julius CAESAR, a colony of veterans was founded there, known as Colonia Julia Caesarea Felix Sinope. The city relied primarily on the bountiful trade in the Black Sea for its survival. By the 4th century A.D., its position had declined considerably.

¤ SIRMIUM City on the Save River just south of the DANUBE and near modern Belgrade, in the region of Pannonia Inferior. Sirmium assumed a great strategic importance to the Romans because of its central location relative to the Danubian frontier. With communication possible with MOESIA, PANNONIA, ILLYRICUM and MACEDONIA, it was ideal as a center for naval operations. For that reason the emperors DOMITIAN and TRAJAN took up quarters at Sirmium in their wars against the Dacians, and MARCUS AURELIUS found it convenient in his MARCOMANNIC WARS. The city boasted notable brick structures, including baths, granaries and palaces.

¤ SITAS (fl. late 1st century B.C.) Blind ruler of the Thracian tribe of the DENTHELETI, who was an ally of ROME. In 29 B.C., he and his people were menaced by the Bastarnae, who overran their lands in Thrace. Marcus Licinius CRASSUS (2) was sent into the region and rescued Sitas.

«¤» 69 A.D. One of the bloodiest and most turbulent years in the history of the Roman Empire. In this terrible period the Roman world, especially ROME, endured assassinations, executions, coups, battles, invasions and bitter rivalries, all reflecting the other name given to 69 A.D.-the Year of the Four Emperors.

On June 9, 68, Emperor NERO, uttering the words, "What an artist dies with me!" committed suicide. The SENATE recognized Servius Sulpicius GALBA (2), governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, as Nero's successor. He did not reach Rome until the fall of 68, but soon disappointed everyone in the city with a harsh, overly austere nature and a tendency to allow his advisors, Titus VINIUS, Cornelius LACO and ICELUS, a free hand in the tyrannical acquisition of monies. Consequently, on January 1, 69, the legions on the Rhine refused to take the oath of allegiance (the SACRAMENTUM) and demanded that a replacement be found.

To please the establishment, GALBA announced on January 10 that PISO LICINIANUS was his heir. Instead of satisfying his enemies, he merely infuriated the governor of Lusitania, Marcus Salvius OTHO, who felt more deserving of the throne than Piso. He found allies in the PRAETORIAN GUARD, for they were ready to commit murder after Galba refused to pay them their promised DONATIVUM, saying "I am used to levying soldiers, not paying them." Otho and his fellow conspirators struck on January 15, killing Galba and his heir.

Otho received the support of the Senate and the fealty of the legions in Syria (under VESPASIAN), the East and on the Danube. In Rome he took steps to placate those who suffered under Galba but then discovered that the troops in Germania had risen in revolt. The Rhine legions, urged on by their ambitious legates, CAECINA ALIENUS and Fabius VALENS, declared for VITELLIUS, the governor of Germania Inferior, even before Galba was dead. So, with an army of 100,000 men, Vitellius and his generals set out for Italy.

Strangely wasting time for weeks, Otho finally sprang into action to defend Rome and his throne. He had at his disposal only 25,000 men but positioned them well along the line of the Po River in northern Italy. The Vitellians, meanwhile, passed through Gaul and Helvetia, ravaging much of the countryside. Battle finally was joined at PLACENTIA and then at BEDRIACUM, on April 15. Othonian hopes were crushed in a confrontation that should not have taken place, and on April 17 Otho killed himself. Vitellius proceeded to Rome, where he indulged himself in a brief period of dissipation. His administration was worse than Galba's, far more corrupt and even more spiteful. The old Praetorian Guard was disbanded, replaced by a new one formed from the Germanic legions. Gladiatorial shows, endless feasts and lavish spending were brought to a stunned end by the news that the Danubian armies had given their SALUTATIO (salute) to Vespasian in the East and were marching on Italy under the command of the legate Antonius PRIMUS.

Vespasian, governor of JUDAEA, had been directing the Jewish War before the outbreak of the hostilities in Rome. He was an excellent choice for emperor, well-respected and backed by the prefect of Egypt, TIBERIUS JULIUS ALEXANDER, and the governor of Syria, MUCIANUS. The legions in that part of the Empire took their oath to him in July. Word reached the disaffected Danubian commands quickly. Vespasian soon had even more soldiers ready to die for him and his cause. Primus, using his gift for eloquence, convinced the Danube legions not to wait for Vespasian's eastern units, on their way under Mucianus. They marched west toward Italy, placing Vitellius in an ironically similar position to the one faced by Otho. The Vitellians tried to protect the line of advance into Italy but failed because of their stagnated military skills and the attempted treason of Caecina Alienus.

The climactic engagement between the Flavians (Vespasian's troops) and the Vitellians came at Bedriacum on October 27. Led by Primus, the Danubian cohorts won the day. The road to Rome lay ahead, while Vitellius made a few preparations for a siege and negotiated with Flavius SABINUS, PREFECT OF THE CITY and Vespasian's brother, for a surrender. Feelings ran high among the Vitellians, and Sabinus was soon besieged on the Capitol, perishing supposedly at the feet of Vitellius. Such treachery infuriated the Flavians. Primus was forced by his legionaries to attack Rome at once, pushing into the Eternal City in three great columns. A bitter fight ensued at the Castra Praetoria, while Vitellius was captured and executed on the Gemonian Stairs on December 20. Soon the entire city was pacified. Primus settled into the role of master of Rome, awaiting the arrival of Mucianus. The year ended as the Eastern legions approached, bringing to a close a truly grim time. Mercifully, there followed many years of stability.

¤ SLAVERY An ancient institution in ROME, and a major part of Roman society and economics for many centuries. Because of the pervasiveness of the practice of enslaving human beings, the Romans drew up strict laws and regulations to ensure that slaves were treated in a fair manner. Throughout the Republic, slaves were available, but it was only after the 2nd century B.C. that they began appearing in massive numbers. The reason for this expansion in the slave trade was Rome's rise as the most powerful state in the Mediterranean. With territorial acquisitions in ASIA MINOR, many of the slaves came from the East and were Syrian, Jew, Greek and even Egyptian. Further conquests along the Rhine, the DANUBE and in Gaul opened up even more sources for strong barbarians who made good fieldhands. The wide variety of slaves in Rome, and throughout the Roman Empire, was broken down into precise classes. All slaves were either public or private. Public enslavement was usually preferable to private, as the servi publici had greater personal freedom, were rarely sold and could, to a small degree, own property-a condition unique in the history of slavery. Duties involved caretaking public buildings, serving officials and performing as lictors and executioners.

Private slavery could be pleasant or hellish. Those slaves belonging to one person were called a familia, with three being necessary to constitute this body. All private slaves belonged either to the familia urbana or familia rustica. The familia urbana worked in the houses of their owners. This entailed traveling with the master to any country villa; the familia urbana did not lose their status by departing from the city because the villa was considered an extension of the main house. The slaves of the house were appointed to smaller groups, called decuriae, depending upon their specialities or appointed jobs. Ordinarii ran the housekeeping, with slaves under their command; they could be chief chambermaids or butlers. Vulgares constituted the bulk of house slaves. All household chores were handed to them, including cooks (coqui) and bakers (pistores). Some were janitors or doormen. The literati acted as readers or secretaries for the household and were highly prized because of their literacy.

All slaves outside of the house were called members of the familia rustica. They were herdsmen, farmhands or gatherers in the fields. The familia rustica were seen more often in the days of the Republic, for the maintenance of large numbers of slaves on farmlands was staggeringly expensive. More importantly, the government in Rome did not relish the idea of a landowner amassing a virtual army of slaves on a rural estate. Tenant farming thus replaced slavery in crop production and farming.

According to Roman law, the slave was utterly the property of his or her owner. Thus, the master could treat the slave as he pleased. Punishments, rewards, manumission and even death were at the whim of the owner. While sodal norms and belief in the humane treatment of all human beings helped to improve the general lot of slaves, there were still many shocking acts of cruelty. Laws were passed to help regulate treatment, in particular, the Lex Petronia (circa 61 A.D.) and the Lex Junta Petronia (19 A.D.). Even with such laws, persons of influence committed acts of outright murder. Witness Publius Vedius POLLIO, who threw his slaves to man-eating eels.

Aside from the Lex Petronia and the Lex Junia Petronia, other steps were taken. The Roman constitution supposedly ensured fair living conditions for slaves. If a master was obscenely harsh, the slaves could protest, and Claudius decreed that any slave who was infirm and was left exposed could be considered free. Further, in the event of a slave's sale, any family, including wife and children, went with him, this despite the official refusal of the law to recognize any children at all or to accept a slave's marriage as legitimate.

Manumissio was the act of terminating enslavement. It was generally up to the owner to decide if a slave should go free. The custom developed to allow many slaves their independence, and by the time of Augustus this had become a distinct social problem. In 2 B.C., the Lex Fufia Caninia was passed, restricting the mass manumissions that occurred upon the death of a master. Another law, the Lex Aelia Sentia (in 4 A.D.), completed the intent of the Fufia Caninia by creating certain conditions for manumission. A board of magistrates determined the suitability of a slave, based on his or her moral or social character. As punishment for harsh treatment a slaveholder might lose the slave in question. During the Christian era, it was possible for a slave to leave his servitude to enter a monastery or to become an ascetic. Naturally, all such would-be clerics had to remain forever in their religious environment. Any departure from the monastic way or any grounds of corrupt living meant an immediate return to slavery.

CHRISTIANITY, long concerned with its own survival, did not condemn slavery as contrary to the proper way of Christian doctrine. Once the Roman Empire was fully Christianized, steps were taken to eradicate the entire institution. Led by Christian leaders and writers, the slave-owners were openly discouraged from continuing the practice. The institution died hard, finding new strength in the barbarian invasions, bringing the so-called silavi or slaves.

¤ SMYRNA Venerable, wealthy and naturally beautiful city on the western coast of ASIA MINOR. From the earliest days of Greek expansion in the Aegean, Smyrna attracted colonists. With fertile hills and a superb harbor it emerged as a major center for trade, both by sea and land, a reputation carefully and shrewdly cultivated by its leaders. They chose to aid ROME in its wars against Mithridates, earning the eternal gratitude of the Romans. As one of the foremost metropolises of the senatorial province of ASIA, Smyrna was a recipient of the intense development initiated by the emperors. An earthquake devastated it in 178 A.D., but MARCUS AURELIUS sent a senator of Praetorian rank to rebuild it, putting vast resources at his disposal. Unfortunately, Smyrna was not blessed with the presence of any imperial officials beyond the conventus iuridicus. This placed it at a disadvantage to EPHESUS and PERGAMUM. Christianity made the birthplace of HOMER a success, as Smyrna was included in the seven churches of Asia and as the site of martyrdom of POLYCARP.

¤ SOCIAL CLASSES A strict social order developed in the early days of Rome, when the kings called together the oldest families (patres) for advice and counsel. The heads of the families formed the SENATE (from the Latin for senes, old men) and thus constituted, with their families, the first class of Roman society, the populus Romanus. With the expulsion of the kings, the Republic was founded, with political power resting in the hands of PATRICIANS, who controlled not only the Senate but also the high positions of government. Their exalted position was in marked contrast to the status of increasingly numerous freeborn men. These came not from noble families but from the ranks of the commoners and could neither serve in the government nor hold any kind of office. In time, however, they constituted the majority of Roman citizens, winning entry into politics and recognition as a legitimate class, the Plebeians.

These two social orders were joined in time by the Equestrians (see EQUITES), who belonged both to the Patricians and the Plebeians. Importantly, the Equestrians fulfilled the needed task of acting as bankers and economic leaders. They received into their ranks numerous noblemen who opted for membership and commoners who could afford the large fees necessary for admission.

The entire Republican social system was not swept away by AUGUSTUS, but it was certainly reformed and changed. Imperial Roman society reflected both the rise of the emperors and their families and the acquisition and Romanization of vast stretches of once barbarian or enemy land. At the top of the imperial social classes was the palace, with the PRINCEPS. Augustus did not rely upon Oriental court ceremonies as a way of governing, but inevitably such a grandiose lifestyle took firm hold. GAIUS CALIGULA and NERO were the first practitioners, but the more cunning DIOCLETIAN used it to elevate the royal family and hence the entire central administration into a supreme position in the Empire. Diocletian's precedent was followed by the house of the Constantines and became fully developed by the emperors of the 5th century A.D. and by the Byzantines. The notion of an emperor being a god (apotheosis) was an instrument of perpetuating the privileges of the ruler while indoctrinating the provinces into the IMPERIAL CULT.

The Patricians suffered severely under the emperors because of their social proximity to the imperial household and their ancient assembly of the Senate. Despite Augustus' complex attempts at retaining the Republican facade of government, it was a reality of life that his own position as princeps had come at the expense of the Senate. Further, the Patricians as a class were diluted by the appointment of Equestrians and even Plebeians to their ranks. Nevertheless, they survived the purges of the more tyrannical emperors and existed as best they could. From the 3rd century A.D., members of the wealthy upper class of the Empire came to be known as honestiores and were given special rights, especially in terms of law, with the aim of preserving their dwindling numbers.

Of the major classes in Roman Imperial society, the Equestrians were clearly the most successful. As they had access to all classes, were historically the most flexible and had long-standing ties to business and finance, the Knights were perfectly positioned to receive the patronage of the emperors. By the 2nd century A.D., they began to take over vital roles in affairs of the Empire.

Because of the infusion of new blood, the Equestrians were constantly drawing off members of the next class, the Plebeians. The departure of members of this group to the Equestrians was probably always welcomed, especially by the new knight's family. Political influence for the Plebeians was gone after 14 A.D., when Tiberius transferred the election of magistrates from the comitia to the Senate. Other problems surfaced as well. Slaves were being released by their masters (manumissio) in vast numbers, and it was necessary to pass the Lex Fufia Caninia (2 B.C.) and Lex Aelia Sentia (4 A.D.) to restrict such manumissions.

The plight of the Plebeians in the years of the Empire was very often severe. Social advancement was difficult, and there was little incentive to work toward improving one's lot because of the public subsidies of food (frumentationes) given out by the emperor. When combined with the distracting games and shows that were held all year, many in Rome were content. Plebs found life even worse in the Late Empire, when they became known as the tamiliores, or lower class. They were the most affected by the decay of central authority, for the food stopped coming and protection from brigands and invasions ceased.

For those Plebeians who were desirous of stepping up into a better existence, there were ways. Success in business made the Equestrian ranks attainable, while even a military career opened up avenues that in the Republic were utterly closed. Another method of self aggrandizement was the finding of a patron. Being a client to a wealthy or powerful Roman official could lead to appointments in the government or at least a small amount of gift money, the sportula. In the patronage relationship between a patron and a client, a client would flatter and scrape before his protector, giving early morning attendance (SALUTATIO), and in turn the patron would, if convenient, offer dinner, a few extra coins, some clothes or even a kindly word. This parasitic existence has been seen as a major example of the degeneration of Roman society. See also CURIALIS; DECIIRIONES; FARMING; INDUSTRY; SLAVERY; TRADE; TRIBUNE; TRIBUNICIA POTESTAS.

¤ SOCRATES (c. 380-450 A.D.) A lawyer and Christian historian who was a native of CONSTANTINOPLE and knew little of the West. This deficiency was apparent in his continuation of the Ecclesiastical History of EUSEBIUS. Composed in seven books, Socrates' work carried the chronicle from 305 to 439. He relied at first on Rufinus, but after the writings of Athanasius became available he corrected numerous historical errors, issuing a revised edition. In style, Socrates strove for straightforward and objective narrative. This being an ecclesiastical account, he displayed little interest in secular matters but conveyed his layman's aversion to the theological debates of the time. He used, however, numerous documents from the Eastern Church, in turn being the main source for SOZOMEN.

¤ SOLIDUS Main gold coin of issue during the Late Empire. Whereas the AUREUS had served for centuries as the central species of gold currency, by the 4th century A. D. it had become too heavy and hence too expensive to mint. By the reforms of CONSTANTINE the Great (c. 312) the aureus was replaced by the solidus, a lighter coin but still of gold. The solidus received vast distribution and lingered as a form of currency in the Dark Ages. See also COINAGE.

¤ SOLINUS, GAIUS JULIUS (fl. early 3rd century A.D.) Grammarian and author of the Collectanae rerum memombilium. Solinus borrowed extensively from PLINY THE ELDER'S Natural History and the writings of Pomponius MELA, without acknowledgement, presenting curiosities in geographical history from all over the Empire. Considered inferior as a writer, Solinus has been attacked as a plunderer, whose own original contributions, notably on the British Isles, could not compensate for a lack of independent scholarship elsewhere.

¤ SOL INVICTUS Roman god of the sun, called by the Greeks Helios. Sol to the early Romans was a Sabine god who possessed a temple on the Quirinal Hill and received public worship on August 8 of every year. When the Greek deity Helios was introduced into ROME, Sol assumed most of his attributes, including his identification with Apollo. The Greek city of Rhodes, with its Colossus, was dedicated to the deity.

Despite the connection to Apollo and the attempts of AUGUSTUS to give Apollo a high place of honor, worship of Sol was not widespread in Rome or in Italy. That changed with the introduction of the Eastern cults, especially that of Mithras. From the time of VESPASIAN and the Flavians (69-96 A.D.), Mithras and solar cults were officially sanctioned by the imperial government. Henceforth the rise of Mithraism was inexorably tied to the idea of Sol Invictus or the Invincible Sun.

Sol Invictus was part of the twofold process in Roman religion of increasing influence and the need to find a universal deity for the entire Empire. As the sun was the most wondrous sight in the universe, held sacred by virtually every civilized culture in the Roman world, it was natural to make Sol the heart of imperial religious grandeur. A foreshadowing of this came in the reign of ELAGABALUS when the sun god of Emesa was brought to Rome. It found final fruition under AURELIAN, the soldier-emperor, who helped the Roman Empire recover from the catastrophes of the 3rd century A.D. Celebrating his triumphs, he thanked Sol Invictus of the East for coming to his aid. Solar belief was ordered throughout the provinces, a decree upheld by DIOCLETIAN in his attempts to expunge Christianity. Even CONSTANTINE used the solar motif on his COINAGE. This first Christian ruler employed the idea of Sol Invictus on most of his species of coins, often with the motto, "SOL INVICTI COMITI," all the while acting as patron to the Christians. Sol Invictus, with Mithras, was revered by only one more emperor, Julian, from 361 to 363.

¤ SOOTHSAYERS Known to the Romans as haruspices; important diviners used by both the state and private persons in a number of ways. According to tradition, soothsayers first developed in Etruria, mastering their craft before appearing in Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Super-bus. They were subsequently summoned back to the city by senatorial decree to interpret any prodigies or omens left unexplained by the SIBYLLINE BOOKS. The soothsayers were requested with such frequency that by the time of the Punic Wars they had settled in Rome. Generals often consulted them, and their pronouncements were followed carefully by the priests of the city. They thus achieved popularity at the expense of the AUGURS, many going so far as to accept money for their services, an act that earned general condemnation. Although they possessed their own order, the haruspices lacked an actual collegium. This was changed by CLAUDIUS in 47 A.D. when he asked that a college of soothsayers be established with the object of preventing the old science from dying out.

Soothsayers could do three things: read entrails (extispicium); decide the meaning of an event; and name a way in which to appease the gods after some event of an ominous nature. The first form of divination, the reading of the exta or vital organs, was the most commonly used skill, for control could be exercised over the entire ceremony. The other two had to be in response to an event or happening. Haruspices remained under a leader, the haruspex maximus, until the early 5th century A.D., when their institutions were closed.

¤ SOPATER (early 4th century A.D.) Leading Neoplatonic philosopher following the death of his tutor, IAMBLICHUS. Sopater came from Apamea in SYRIA and was a noted pagan writer. Visiting Nicomedia and CONSTANTINOPLE, he became a close friend of CONSTANTINE the Great. It was to the emperor that he explained that no expiation was possible for the murder of CRISPUS. Sopater soon fell under attack by jealous courtiers, led by the Praetorian Prefect ABLABIUS. Accused of propagating PAGANISM and using magic to ruin crops, the philosopher was executed. His son, also a philosopher, was an associate of the emperors CONSTANTIUS II and JULIAN THE APOSTATE.

¤ SOPHISTRY A school of learning and artistic skill that was popular in ancient Greece and then died out as the Sophists lost their finesse and lore and degenerated into pomposity. A rebirth in sophistry came in the 2nd century A.D., with an increased Roman appreciation of Hellenism under Emperor HADRIAN. Resurgent sophistry was a result of the success of the rhetorical speakers so much a part of the 1st century A.D., especially the declamations. Once more, orators roamed the world, attracting large, cheering audiences that included, at times, even Roman emperors. The greatest of these new Sophists were DIO COCCEIANUS, HERODES ATTICUS and PHILOSTRATUS. The movement declined in the chaos of the 3rd century, only to reappear in the 4th. Sophistry at this time became the weapon of leading pagans fighting Christianity's attacks on paganism. In their ranks were JULIAN THE APOSTATE, THEMISTIUS, LIBANIUS and Himerius. SYNESIUS OF CYRENE was the last notable Sophist.

¤ SORANUS (fl. 2nd century A.D.) Physician and great medical writer. He came from EPHESUS, studying at ALEXANDRIA before finally opening up a practice in Rome, where he remained during the reigns of TRAJAN and HADRIAN (98-138). Soranus authored some 20 volumes on medicine, specializing in specific diseases instead of generalities or symptoms. He wrote in Greek but Latin translations were common and popular.

¤ SORANUS, BAREA (fl. mid-lst century A.D.) Noted Stoic and political figure held in high regard by his contemporaries. Soranus was consul in 52 A.D. and proconsul of Asia from around 61-62. He fulfilled his duties with both integrity and energy, aiding EPHESUS in developing its harbor and refusing to punish PERGAMUM for preventing the city's plunder by Acratus, one of Nero's freedmen. For this and for his virtue, Soranus was singled out for destruction. NERO charged him with friendship with RUBELLIUS PLAUTUS and treasonable activities. Condemned, Soranus stoically took his own life.

¤ SORORIA Name given to JUNO as the goddess of puberty.

¤ SOSIGENES (fl. 1st century B.C.) Peripatetic philosopher and astronomer. He was hired by Julius CAESAR in 46 to reorganize the Roman calendar.

¤ SOSIUS, GAIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) Lieutenant of Marc ANTONY and one of his most reliable generals; appointed governor of Syria by Antony in 38 B.C. The following year he marched with two legions in Palestine to aid HEROD THE GREAT in reclaiming his lost kingdom from the Parthians and from rival claimant Antigonus. In 37, Sosius besieged and captured JERUSALEM for Herod, commemorating the event by striking coins bearing the likenesses of Antigonus and JUDAEA (epitomized by a captive woman). Henceforth he was a follower of Antony against Octavian (AUGUSTUS), once delivering a stinging attack against Octavian in the SENATE. Consul in 32, when open warfare erupted between the triumvirs (see TRIUMVIRATE, SECOND), Sosius fled to the East to join Antony. He was at the battle of Actium in 31, where he fell into Octavian's hands but was spared. Sosius rebuilt the aged TEMPLE OF APOLLO in ROME.

¤ SOZOMEN, SALMANINIUS HERMIAS (fl. early 5th century A.D.) Christian historian who probably came from Gaza but lived in CONSTANTINOPLE as a lawyer. His main achievement was to write a continuation of EUSEBIUS' Ecclesiastical History. In nine books the chronicle extended the history from 323 to either 425 or 439, although the sections from approximately 421 are not extant. Sozomen relied heavily upon the writer SOCRATES, his older contemporary, but his own sources were more sound, especially in terms of Western development and the spread of CHRISTIANITY among the non-Romans.

¤ SPAIN See HISPANIA.

¤ SPARTA Once one of the most renowned states in the Mediterranean, Sparta fell under Roman domination with the rest of Greece. From 146 B.C. it was included in the province of MACEDONIA until it became part of Emperor AUGUSTUS' creation of ACHAEA. Sparta was considered a federated state.

¤ SPECULATORES A department of the PRAETORIAN GUARD, originally created to act as the source of couriers, scouts or special agents. Over time, the Speculatores and their sub-department, the Quaestionarii, acquired a sinister reputation as the private assassins and torturers of the Roman emperors. The need for special service soldiers was a natural one, as in Rome there were many non-military duties that accompanied enlistment in the Praetorians. The Speculatores thus became familiar with internal palace intrigues by carrying dispatches or running errands for the powerful. Lucius Aelius SEJANUS, the notorious Prefect in the reign of TIBERIUS, first used them as spies, assassins or as experts in cruel torture (this was the purpose of the Quaestionarii, the Questioners).

Once the Speculators had made themselves useful their existence was guaranteed. Membership was restricted to veterans of more than five years service. NERO, through his Prefect Ofonius TIGELLINUS, used the Speculators to hunt down his enemies, especially those in the PISONIAN CONSPIRACY. And TITUS, it was said, sent them out as his own murderers, removing all political rivals while serving as prefect for his father, VESPASIAN. Because of their limited number and the necessity of keeping some of them in- I volved in mundane tasks, the Speculatores never evolved into an empire-wide intelligence organization, such as the one created by HADRIAN, the FRUMENTARII.

¤ SPELUNCA Now called Sperlonga; a unique country estate in Campania, built in the 1st century A.D. and used by Emperor TIBERIUS as a private retreat. Meaning "cave" or "grotto," Spelunca was a beautiful cavern on the coast, decorated and supported by masonry, Rhodian sculptures (a remembrance of his time on Rhodes), rooms, dining areas, show stages and even a fish pond, or vivarium. According to TACITUS, Tiberius left Rome in 26 A.D. to live in Campania. On his way to the VILLA jovis, he stayed at Spelunca with an entourage, including Praetorian Prefect Lucius Aelius SEJANUS. While dining, the mouth of the cave collapsed. The courtiers ran for their lives, and only Sejanus remained, covering Tiberius' body with his own. This event prompted the emperor's explicit trust in his lieutenant.

¤ SPLIT A small village approximately three miles west of Salona on the Illyrian coast. Its significance dates from 305 A.D., when the retired Emperor DIOCLETIAN took up residence there, living out his life in a sumptuous palace. The villa at Split was constructed by Diocletian from around 300 to 305/6, and its architecture was both ingenious and practical, combining styles that were imperial, martial and sound. Its military qualities could be seen in the stout rectangular walls surrounding the entire complex, with towers and easily defended gates. Two colonnaded avenues cut the palace into quarters, with the business sections and the barracks in the two northern portions. Here business could be conducted in preparation for seeing the emperor, who resided with his extensive entourage in the southern half.

Diocletian's palace at Split

Diocletian's suites, rooms and audience chambers were very impressive. None more so than his Hall of Audiences, the Aula Palatina. There, dressed in his formal robes and sitting on a lavish throne, he would greet his guests. Pointed toward the sea, the throne rested beneath a hugh vaulted arch, designed to strike awe in any supplicant. Ironically, although Diocletian was an expert at creating imperial atmosphere, his happiest moments at Split were spent in his gardens, especially in his cabbage beds.

¤ SPORUS (d. 69 A.D.) A beautiful youth in Rome who was "married" to Emperor NERO around 65 A.D., complete with a dowry and the title of mistress. Sporus had the nickname Sabina because of his similarity in appearance to POPPAEA, the dead empress and former wife of Nero. One of the more notorious lovers of the ruler, Sporus fled from Rome with Nero in 68, killing himself during the short reign of VITELLIUS in 69.

¤ S.P.Q.R. The four letters used by the Romans on their coins, standards and monuments. They stood for Senatus Populusque Romanus (Senate and People of Rome). S.P.Q.R. was retained by AUGUSTUS and placed, in a variety of forms, on the Roman imperial COINAGE from his reign until the time of CONSTANTINE the Great. Other variations included "S.p.q.r.a.n.f.f., OPTIMI PRINCIPI," (the Senate and People of Rome [hope for] a prosperous and joyous New Year [annum novum faustum felice] to the foremost prince); or "S.P.Q.R. IMP. CAES. QUOD V.M.S.EX.EA.P.Q.IS.AD.A.DE" (Senatus Populusque Romanus Imperatori Caesari quod vine munitae sint ex ea pecunia quam is aerarium detulit), in gratitude to Augustus for his monetary contribution to the treasury and his gifts of the roads and improvement of public safety.

¤ SPURINNA (fl. 1st century B.C.) The AUGUR of Rome in 44 B.C. who uttered the warning to Julius CAESAR: "Beware the Ides of March!" He also answered Caesar's retort that the Ides had come, saying: "Yes, they have come, but they have not passed."

¤ SPURINNA, TITUS VESTRICIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) Minor official in the cause of Emperor OTHO against VITELLIUS in 69 A.D. Spurinna and Annius Callus were appointed by Otho to be the forward commanders of the troops marching north to defend Italy from the invasion by the Vitellians. Spurinna proved his worth by protecting the town of PLACENTIA from attack by CAECINA ALIENUS. He then joined his fellow Othonians in the battle of BEDRIACUM.

¤ STABIAE Small town in Campania, to the southwest of POMPEII and north of Surrentum. Stabiae was very old when it was destroyed by Sulla during the Social War (90-89 B.C.), but it is noted for two happenings in 79 A.D. The first was its near total destruction by Mount VESUVIUS, along with that of Pompeii and HERCULANEUM. The second was the death of PLINY THE ELDER, witnessing the eruption from Misenum, when he sailed to Stabiae to get a better look and inhaled the toxic fumes pouring over the town.

¤ STATIUS, PUBLIUS PAPINIUS (c. 40 or 45-95 or 96 A.D.) Widely read epic poet who was one of the great poets of the Flavian era (69-96 A.D.). Statius was born in Naples, the son of a school teacher. Competing at an early age in contests in Naples and Alba, he made a name for himself and his work. Upon his father's death he traveled to ROME, where he composed pantomimes and became a declaimer of high repute (see RHETORIC). Social connections, a marriage to a Roman woman named Claudia, and the successful reception of his work, especially the Thebaid, allowed him to live in some comfort in Alba for the remaining years of his life. His three main works are the Thebaid, Silvae and Achilleid. Derived from Antimachos, the Thebaid was his earliest and longest composition. Published around 91, its 12 books of hexameter detail the struggle between Polynices and Eteocles. Very superficial, Statius seemed to thrive on rhetorical effect, willingly mixing pathos with the outrageous. Silvae, a collection of 32 poems on diverse topics, was published sometime before his death. It stands as the most popular of the poet's works because of its insights into the times and its more traditional style. Achilleid was never finished, as its second book was incomplete. On a massive scale, this epic was to augment the Iliad. Statius certainly possessed the talent and the eccentric vision to achieve its completion.

¤ STATIUS ANNAEUS (fl. mid-lst century A.D.) Personal friend and physician of SENECA, who helped his long-time associate to kill himself in 65 A.D. When Seneca did not die from the usual method of cutting his veins, Statius tried the traditional Greek way-hemlock. Seneca had lost too much blood, however, so a lethal vapor bath was prepared, the Laconicum.

¤ STATIUS PRISCUS (fl. 2nd century A.D.) Consul in 159 and one of the most successful generals in the reigns of MARCUS AURELIUS (161-180 A.D.) and Lucius VERUS (161-169 A.D.). He was governor of numerous provinces, including Dacia, MOESIA, Britain and CAPPADOCIA. While serving in Cappadocia in 163, he helped Lucius VERUS conquer ARMENIA, sweeping into the country and destroying Artaxata, the Armenian capital. Verus took the title Armeniacus. Statius Priscus was replaced by Martius VERUS.

¤ STEPHANUS (d. 96 A.D.) One of the murderers of DOMITIAN in 96 A.D., he was a strong freedman in the palace, chosen as the main assassin. He struck Domitian, knocking him unconscious while his fellow conspirators completed the deed. In the fray that followed, Stephanus was slain.

¤ STEPHANUS (Pope Stephen I) (d. 258 A.D.) Pope from 245 to 257. His years as the leader of the Roman Church were spent in bitter conflict with his colleagues, differing with them on such questions as lapsed Christians and baptisms by heretics. A particularly vicious disagreement occurred with CYPRIAN, the bishop of CARTHAGE, over the latter. Little else is known about Stephanus and doubts remain concerning his supposed martyrdom in 258.

¤ STILICHO, FLAVIUS (d. 408 A.D.) MAGISTER MILITUM in the West from 394 to 408 and one of the major political figures in the later years of the Roman Empire. Stilicho was the son of a VANDAL cavalry officer and a Roman lady. Probably through the influence of his father he was chosen in 383 to serve as part of a diplomatic mission to PERSIA. Upon his return (c. 394) he was married to Serena, Emperor THEODOSIUS i's niece, and given the rank of COMES, or count. From 385 to 392 he was comes domesticorum, accompanying the emperor on his campaign against Magnus Maximus while amassing influence and power in the court. Made MAGISTER MILITUM in THRACE (c. 392), he was a general during the war against Eugenius. After the battle of FRIGIDUS (394), Theodosius declared him magister militum in the West.

Stilicho now possessed virtually unlimited power, increasing his control by centralizing the bureaucracy of the Western provinces, making them answerable to him alone. Thus, when Theodosius named Stilicho as guardian of the young Honorius, he was ready to go beyond the letter of the emperor's aims, especially after Theodosius died in 395. De facto ruler of the West and master of the Eastern armies, Stilicho pronounced himself guardian of both emperors HONORIUS and ARCADIUS. Marching into Greece he was ready to annihilate ALARIC and the VISIGOTHS but received orders to desist from Praetorian Prefect RUFINUS, whom Stilicho subsequently had murdered.

The removal of Rufinus did nothing to end the hatred of Stilicho in both the Eastern and Western courts. In 397, Arcadius declared him a public enemy, and the magister militum in AFRICA, Gildo, revolted. Neither event could loosen his hold on the Western Empire, for he was CONSUL in 400. The following year Alaric invaded Italy, only to be beaten by Stilicho at the battle of POLLENTIA. Consul again in 405, the general took to the field once more, this time against Radagaisus, routing the barbarian king in 406. Deciding to use Alaric as an ally, he elevated the Visigoth to the rank of magister militum as part of a plan to take ILLYRICUM. His strategy was ruined by the emergence of the usurper CONSTANTIUS HI in Gaul. Not only did he have to face a dangerous usurper, but also Alaric suddenly demanded compensation of 4,000 pounds of gold. Stilicho convinced the SENATE to oblige.

Fortune turned against Stilicho even more in 408. Arcadius died, and Stilicho convinced Honorius to allow him to settle affairs at Constantinople. Already weakened by Alaric's extortion, Stilicho was accused by members of the court of plotting to put his son on the throne. When the troops in Gaul mutinied, murdering their own officers, Stilicho was arrested by Honorius. After hiding briefly in a church, he was executed on August 22, 408.

Many accounts were very hostile to Stilicho, most notably that of the historian EUNAPIUS. He was, nevertheless, an accomplished general who proved skillful in defeating the hordes then threatening the Empire and in dealing with them by negotiation and diplomacy. A vehement Christian, he helped destroy PAGANISM both through laws and with the burning of the SIBYLLINE BOOKS.

¤ STIPENDIUM Translated most often as "payment," generally the pay given to the Roman soldier. Other meanings given to it were the length of service expected by the troops before their retirement, and even a tax. More specifically, the enteritis stipendis denoted the end of a man's military duty. See also LEGIONS; DONATIVUM.

¤ STOICISM Important philosophical movement founded in the 3rd century B.C. by ZENO of Citium. Named after the Greek stoa or public meeting place, as in Athens where Zeno taught, the idea of Stoicism was to make the lives of humans as orderly as the cosmos. By adhering to the guiding principle of nature it was believed possible for someone to bring a sense of logic and order into existence. The history of Stoicism, like the ideas of its adherents, followed varied paths of development. Some Stoics stressed the ideal of virtue, while others used physics and reasoning. Nevertheless it had a profound effect upon the Romans, most notably in its last two eras, the Middle and Late Stoas.

The Middle Stoa lasted from the 2nd to the 1st century B.C. and was brought to Rome in all of its glory by Diogenes of Seleucia. Although attacked by Cato, Stoicism found a home in the Roman intellectual environment Its greatest champions of the era were Panaetius, Posidonius and Scipio Aemilianus, while other Stoics included Scaevola and Aelius Tubero. They allowed the philosophy to flourish and thus survived the upheaval that led to the foundation of the Roman Empire.

Roman fascination with the Stoic virtues and ethical pondering characterized the Late Stoa, roughly the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. The fact that ethics were important and pursued actively was seen in the list of practitioners of Stoicism: Rubellius Plautus, Thrasea Paetus, Helvidius Priscus, Junius Rusticus, C. Musonius Rufus and Q. Junius Arulenus Rusticus.

Stoicism of this age found expression through three masters: L. Annaeus SENECA, EPICTETUS and MARCUS AURELIUS. Seneca the Younger accepted the more scientific outlook of Posidonius, while stressing, sometimes unsuccessfully, the idea of duty to society. Epictetus was most renowned as a teacher; his views on Stoicism helped shape later philosophers, especially Marcus Aurelius. That emperor came the closest of virtually any historical monarch to the idea of the philosopher king. Considered the last of the Stoics, he put his faith in the interior growth of himself, while bowing to the place of all creatures within the universe. From the time of Marcus Aurelius, Stoicism proved unable to retain its vitality, becoming partly absorbed by Neoplatonism and Christianity. It died out when the Athenian school was closed in 529 A.D. by Justinian.

¤ STRABO (fl. late 1st century B.C.) Famed geographer who came from Ameseia in Pontus and was born sometime around 64 or 54 B.C. One of the great, learned travelers in the Roman world, Strabo visited numerous countries and provinces and was a friend of Aelius Gallus, the prefect of Egypt. Educated in Rome, he returned sometime after 30 B.C. and spent a long time in the city. Strabo wrote his vast historical work in 43 books, continuing the history of Polybius probably down to the fall of Egypt in 30 B.C. None of these volumes survive, unlike his 17 books on geography that are in their entirety (minus book seven, in existence only as an epitome). Strabo's Geography was designed for use by educated readers or officials. See also MELA, POMPONIUS; PLINY THE ELDER; PTOLEMY, CLAUDIUS.

¤ STRABO, LUCIUS SEIUS (fl. early 1st century A.D.) The third PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD and the father of the famous Praetorian Prefect SEJANUS. Strabo came from a good Equestrian (EQUITES) family and was appointed by AUGUSTUS in 14 A.D. to succeed Valerius Ligur as sole commander of the Praetorian Guard. Upon Augustus' death in 14, only the consuls preceded him in giving TIBERIUS the oath of allegiance. A short time later, his son Sejanus was promoted as his colleague, eventually replacing him. As a reward for his loyalty, Strabo was made prefect of Egypt.

¤ STYX The major river of the Roman underworld received its name from the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, who watched the entrance of Hades from her beautiful grotto. The river supposedly flowed around the land of the dead seven times. See also CHARON; DEATH.

¤ SUBURA (or Suburra) A valley in Rome created by the Esquiline, Quirinal and Viminal Hills; the area was heavily populated and described by the writer MARTIAL as filled with prostitutes, barbers, stores and vendors. Arrun-tius Stella owned an estate there, with gardens and fountains. In the Subura, along the entrance to the EORUM ROMANUM, could be found as well the punishers of slaves in Rome, their blood-stained instruments hanging on hooks and awaiting use on the Via Turbina, the traditional site of death for slaves.

¤ SUBURANUS (fl. late 1st century A.D.) Also called Saburanus; the PREFECT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARD during the reign of TRAJAN (98-117 A.D.). According to Dio, he was given his official sword by the emperor, with the words: "Take this sword and if I rule well use it for me, but if I rule poorly, use it against me."

¤ SUBURBICARIA Name used in the later years of the Roman Empire for the diocese of southern Italy, comprised of Italy's south, Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia.

¤ SUEBI Also called the Suevi; a collection of Germanic tribes occupying large stretches of territory in Germania Barbara, or "barbaric" Germany. Their domain stretched from the Vistula to the Elbe and along parts of the Rhine, to the Danube. The Suebi were rarely considered by the Romans as a single entity. Rather, it was never forgotten that they were a confederation of tribes, united for self defense. The historian TACITUS wrote of them in this manner, adding that they differed from other Germans in the practice of knotting their hair, tying it sideways or allowing it to grow stiffly backwards.

Rome first encountered the Suebi during Caesar's GALLIC WARS. He defeated ARIOVISTUS, king of the Suebi, in 58 B.C. but admitted that they were the strongest, fiercest people in the region, wearing only skins in the winter and refusing to purchase items of luxury from traders. Among the tribes that belonged to the Suebi, the three most powerful were the Hermunduri, Langobardi and the Semnones. All of the chiefdoms convened once a year in the sacred groves of the Semnones to declare their continued cohesion. This did not always hold true, for many Suebi joined Marobodus, and others, with the Marcomanni, were settled on the lands of the Roman Empire.

Fighting between Rome and the Suebi occurred frequently. A bitter struggle raged in 97-98 A.D. along the Danube, and Marcus Aurelius (c. 178) included them in his vast Germanic campaign north of the Danubian frontier. The tribes were still in existence in the early 5th century A.D., when they crashed across the Rhine, invading Gaul and pushing all the way to Spain with the other barbarian nations of the era.

¤ SUESSIONES A large tribe living in GALLIA Belgica during the 1st century B.C.; under their King GALBA (1) they were forced to defend their lands from Roman invasion by Julius CAESAR in 57 B.C. Despite a heroic stand at the battle of AXONA, they were defeated utterly and forced to submit to Rome. Once second only to the Bellovaci in strength, by their defeat they were forced to become clients for a time to the smaller Remi. Under Roman occupation of Gallia Belgica, the Suessiones were allowed to retain their lands. Romanization was pronounced within their territory; their capital, Noviodonum, was renamed Augusta Suessonum and later became known as Suessones (Soissons). The Suessiones were noted farmers, holding fertile soil just north of the Seine River and Lutetia (Paris).

¤ SUETONIUS (Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus) (69 or 70-after 103 A.D.) An important Roman historian and influential writer, born in Hippo, AFRICA. Suetonius was educated in law, probably teaching literature in Rome before serving as a lawyer and a member of the staff of PLINY THE YOUNGER, then governor of Bithynia (c. 110-112 A.D.) As a member of the Equestrians (EQUITES), Suetonius returned to Rome where a position at the imperial court awaited him. He was a minor secretary and then director of the imperial libraries, both positions most likely under TRAJAN (ruled 98-117 A.D.).

When HADRIAN became emperor in 117, Suetonius was promoted to AB EPISTOLIS, or secretary of correspondence. This post remained his until around 122, when, with Praetorian Prefect Septicius Clarus, he was dismissed by Hadrian for being overly familiar with Empress SABINA. It is possible that he was able to return to Hadrian's favor some years later. He was alive in 130 after which date there is no record of him.

Suetonius first focused on his writing in the reign of Trajan, never stopping from that time on. As the first known Latin biographer, he seemed to deviate consciously from TACITUS' chronological style, preferring to arrange his material and sources in an anecdotal, even episodic manner. Rhetoric overshadowed exactitude. Aside from his works on grammar and history, two collections of biographies most displayed Suetonius' literary talent: De Viris Illustribus (Lives of the Great Men) and De Vita Caesarum (Lives of the Caesars). Lives of the Great Men was a Greek-influenced group of biographies on the major figures of Roman literature. He included grammarians and rhetors (De Grammateus et Rhetoribus); 33 poets (De Poetis), including VIRGIL, HORACE, LUCAN and Terence; and historians, starting with SALLUST. Unfortunately, only fragments of these biographies have survived.

Preserved virtually in its entirety, with only a few early chapters of Julius CAESAR'S life missing, the so-called Twelve Caesars covered the first Roman rulers from Caesar to DOMITIAN. It was dedicated to Septicius Clarus and relied heavily upon state archives, at least until Suetonius was dismissed and lost access to them. This happened perhaps after the Augustan account. For sources Suetonius certainly used the Acts of Augustus, as well as Cremutius Cordus and Gaius Asinius Pollio. Other sources are unclear, as he failed to mention them. Suetonius had a lasting effect on historical composition. Einhard's 9th-century Charlemagne and Petrarch's 14th-century Lives both looked to Suetonius as their model.

¤ SUETONIUS PAULINUS, GAIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) CONSUL in 66 A.D. and a very successful general in Africa and Britain. He first gained notoriety around 41 A.D., when he was sent as a legate to Mauretania to put down a violent local revolt. Although eventually replaced by Hosidius Geta, his reputation was so firmly in place that he was the obvious choice as governor of Britain in 58. According to the historian TACITUS, by 61 he was jealous of the great General CORBULO in Armenia and thus launched his own campaign against the Druid stronghold of Mona (now the island of Anglesey). While his troops conquered the isle, hacking down the sacred groves of the Druids, word arrived that in his absence, Queen BOUDICCA of the Iceni had launched her legendary uprising. Severe fighting was needed before the Britons could be pacified. Ordered to do nothing more by NERO, he was superceded by Petronius Turpilianus. A consulship followed in 66, and in 69, OTHO, looking for generals to bolster his political and military position, brought the aging Suetonius out of retirement. Having lost none of his sense of strategy, the old officer strongly recommended that the Othonians decline battle with VITELLIUS' legions at BEDRIACUM in April of that year. His advice was not heeded, and Otho was defeated. Vitellius, however, allowed Suetonius to return to his quiet life. See also DRUIDS AND DRUIDISM; 69 A.D.

¤ SUILLIUS RUFUS, PUBLIUS (fl. 1st century A.D.) CONSUL in 46 A.D., governor of Asia and a hated orator in ROME. He was once a QUAESTOR under GERMANICUS, and for this he was banished by TIBERIUS in 24 on a charge of judicial bribery, but was allowed to return by Claudius. He involved himself in accusations, acting as a delator (see DELATORES) with his excellent skills in speaking. Acquiring many enemies, he was finally tried for corruption by NERO in 58. Found guilty, Suillius Rufus was exiled to the Balearic Islands. Refusing to act like a criminal, he made certain that his life there was pleasant.

¤ SULLA, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS (d. 46 B.C.) Son of the famous Roman dictator and a minor political figure of the late Republic; a lieutenant in the army of POMPEY THE GREAT. He was with Pompey in 63 B.C. when Jerusalem was captured, distinguishing himself as one of the first soldiers to enter the city. Three years later he amazed ROME with a magnificent gladiatorial show in memory of his father. An AUGUR in 57, he was chosen by the SENATE to build a new meeting place, following the destruction of the Senate's CURIA HOSTILIA in 52. His work on the CURIA CORNELIA was aborted by Julius CAESAR, who wanted no interference with his CURIA JULIA. Not surprisingly, Sulla joined the Pompeian cause at the start of the CIVIL WAR. Present at the battle of PHARSALUS, he fled to Africa and was captured and put to death after the battle of THAPSUS in 46.

¤ SULPICIA (fl. late 1st century A.D.) Poetess who addressed her poems to her husband Galenas and was considered one of the few women writers of the era.

¤ SULPICIANUS, TITUS FLAVIUS (d. 197 A.D.) Prefect of the city in 193 and a participant in the auctioning of the Roman Empire by the PRAETORIAN GUARD. Sulpicianus was appointed Pertinax's successor as urban prefect shortly after the new emperor's accession. He was sent to the CASTRA PRAETORIA on March 28, 193, to bring the mutinous Praetorians back to order, learning while there that Pertinax had been assassinated. Intriguing with the Guard to have himself elevated to the throne, he found a rival in the person of DIDIUS JULIANUS. The two of them bid for the throne, and Sulpicianus lost. He was allowed to live, but in 197, Emperor Septimius SEVERUS put him to death for being a supporter of Clodius Albinus.

¤ SURA, LUCIUS LICINIUS (d.c. 110 A.D.) Consul in 97, 102 and 107 A.D. and one of the closest friends of Emperor TRAJAN. Ever a companion of the emperor, he was sent in 100 as an envoy to the Dacian King DECEBALUS; and he commanded a body of troops in Trajan's Dacian Wars. He was awarded a triumphal insignia but enjoyed greater fame for the absolute trust placed in him by Trajan. The ruler frequently spent days in Sura's home, without attendants, despite the jealous attacks of fellow courtiers. Sura was also partly responsible for introducing the future Emperor HADRIAN to Trajan, encouraging the two men to be on excellent terms. It was Sura who announced to Hadrian that he had been adopted as the royal heir. Sura died around 110 and was honored with a statue and a public funeral.

¤ SURENAS (d. 55 B.C.) Parthian general responsible for the destruction of the Roman general Marcus Licinius CRASSUS (1), at the battle of CARRHAE in 55 B.C. A powerful officer in the Parthian army, Surenas came to the aid of King ORODES n against his brother MITHRIDATES (c. 57-56), driving Mithridates out of the country and ensuring that Orodes became king. Thus, when Triumvir Crassus attempted his invasion of Mesopotamia, Orodes once more turned to his lieutenant. While the king made war upon Rome's Armenian allies, Surenas was given freedom to conduct operations against Crassus. Concerned that he might use this triumph to seize the throne, Orodes put Surenas to death a short time later.

¤ SYMMACHUS,QUINTUSAURELIUS (d.c.402A.D.) CONSUL in 391, PREFECT OF THE CITY of ROME and one of the greatest orators in Roman history. Symmachus was the SENATE'S spokesman in the 4th century and served organized PAGANISM in the same fashion, while enjoying a reputation for poetry. He was a member of the old aristocratic family of the Symmachi, which owned estates on the Caelian Hill and in AFRICA. His education was entrusted to a Gallic teacher of RHETORIC. Embarking on a senatorial career, Symmachus served as a member of a priesthood (c. 365) and in 369 was sent to Gaul as a representative of the Senate to Emperor VALENTINIAN i, meeting and befriending the writer Ausonius. Presumably for his skills in speaking he was rewarded in 373 with the proconsulship of Africa. Back in Rome in 376, he spent several years delivering speeches on various subjects. In 382, an important cause presented itself, the defense of paganism.

Symmachus was an ardent pagan who had already complained during his priesthood that being a pagan was very difficult with a Christian imperial government. Under Emperor Gratian life became even worse. The emperor ordered the Altar of VICTORY removed from the Senate. When Symmachus attempted to have the policy changed, the ruler refused to see him. As Gratian increased the official persecution of paganism, Symmachus emerged as the leading figure in its defense. His powers were increased with the prefectship of the city, but each attempt at reinstating pagan rights, especially the Altar of Victory, was rebuffed, largely through the machinations of AMBROSE, bishop of Milan.

Despite a consulship in 391 and the honorific title of PRINCEPS SENATUS, Symmachus was intermittently ill and even had to leave Rome in 398, chased out by a mob for some unknown reason. He was allowed to return home a short time later, but fell ill again in 400 and died sometime around 402. Many of his speeches were preserved, mainly in fragments, but his greatest contribution came in the form of his 900 letters. Organized into 10 books, Symmachus' letters were very similar to those of PLINY THE YOUNGER, and were addressed to the most notable personages of the times. Thus they served as valuable documents of the social climate of the 4th century, although they were often superficial, decorated and written with an eye to posterity.

¤ SYNESIUS OF CYRENE (c. 370-413/414 A.D.) Bishop of Ptolemais and a gifted intellectual and poet. Synesius was born in Cyrene and was raised as a pagan, studying in ALEXANDRIA under the Neoplatonist HYPATIA. Despite his PAGANISM, Synesius was chosen to be ambassador to CONSTANTINOPLE in 399. Before Emperor Arcadius he delivered a speech on the supreme ideal of a Roman emperor, De Regno. Returning to Cyrenaica, Synesius married a Christian woman in 403, had three children and faced a major decision in 410. Elected bishop of Ptolemais, he pondered for a long time and then gave up his family, was consecrated by Theophilus of Alexandria and became a prelate. It is possible that he was not yet a Christian at the time. A spiritual figure, Synesius proved a strong leader. He died in 413 or 414, spared the tragic news of Hypatia's murder in 415. Synesius authored numerous books. Aside from his letters and hymns he wrote De Providentia on Constantinople; Calvitii Encomium, a satire on baldness; Dion, a defense of learning and Greek culture; and De Dono Astrolabii, a study of astrolobes. See also SIDONIUS APOLLINARIS, for a similar career.

¤ SYRACUSE One of the oldest cities on the Italian peninsula and, during its Roman occupation, the chief seat of government for Sicily (SICILIA). Known as Syracusa, this famous site in southern Sicily was founded in the 8th century B.C. near the mouth of the Anapus River, close to the Syraco Marsh. Established by Corinthians and Dorians, Syracuse developed into a major port in the Mediterranean. It boasted two harbors, the Great, called Porto Maggiore, and the Small, Laccius. Athenian and later Carthaginian fleets were stationed there, at least until around 213/12 B.C., when Rome captured the island. It was natural for Syracuse to serve as the capital of the province of Sicily, and considerable effort was spent in the 1st century A.D. to restore its economic health. This was accomplished through colonists, sent in by AUGUSTUS, and with numerous building programs. Syracuse was thus an interesting blend of Greek and Roman designs. There was a temple of Apollo (6th century B.C.), a temple of Jupiter and one of the largest amphitheaters (3rd century B.C.) in the Roman Empire.

¤ SYRIA One of the largest and most important provinces of the Roman Empire, the linchpin of imperial concerns in the East. Syria was the protector of the vital provinces of ASIA MINOR, the key TRADE routes from the Far East, and the Roman defense against the Parthian and later Persian Empires. A truly ancient country even before its conquest by Alexander the Great in the 4th century B.C., Syria's name was derived from the Aramaic Surja. It came to be applied to a vast portion of the Middle East, including the area west of the TIGRIS, east of Asia Minor and north of the Arabians and Palestinians, who were themselves at times under its jurisdiction. The original inhabitants were Aramaeans, or Syro-Arabians, but throughout ancient history successive invasions brought Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Macedonians and, after the battle of Ipsus in 301 B.C., the Seleucids of Seleucus Nicator, Alexander's general.

From 301 to 79 B.C., the Seleucids were players in the political game of the East. Suffering repeated setbacks they were reduced by the Romans and the Parthians to just the region of Syria by the 1st century B.C. and were conquered entirely by King Tigranes of ARMENIA in 79. Syria soon fell prey to chaos and bloody sorties from the surrounding nations. Nabataeans, Ituraeans, Arabs and Parthians all had designs on the cities or the rich caravan routes. Such was the situation encountered by POMPEY THE GREAT when he arrived there in 64 B.C. He quickly declared Syria a Roman possession, transforming it into a province for the Republic. But instead of annihilating the host of petty kingdoms throughout Syria, he compelled them to become clients of Rome with the task of defending the frontiers. The numerous Greek towns he allowed to retain their independence, appreciating their influence in Syria as instruments of Hellenization and hence civilization.

With the founding of the Roman Empire, the vision of Pompey was proven correct. The client states were still in existence and still loyal to Rome: CHALCIS, JUDAEA, ARABIA and NABATAEA. As part of his imperial policy of manning hostile frontiers with vassals, AUGUSTUS chose to keep Pompey's organization while encouraging the Hellenistic cities. The imperial province of Syria at this time, and throughout the 1st century A.D., stretched from Cappadocia to Arabia (including Judaea, from 6 to 66 A.D.), administered by a procurator. After the fall of Jerusalem in 70 A.D., Judaea was made a separate province under a Praetorian legate, with its own garrisons taken from a large four-legion command of the legate of Syria. The presence of such a sizeable force left little doubt as to where Rome felt it faced enemies. The post of governor of Syria was considered the most powerful imperial office in the East. The career opportunities open to a successful legate were endless, and authority as governor was such that even the IMPERIUM MAIUS could be questioned, as by Piso of Germanicus in 19 A.D.

These strengths increased throughout the final years of the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. Starting with VESPASIAN in 72 A.D., the clients were absorbed and put under the administration of the legate at ANTIOCH (1), the provincial capital. COMMAGENE was one of the first to be incorporated. There followed Ituraea, the Jordan-based realm, in 93, and other weak domains. Syria did lose two notable sections, aside from Judaea; CILICIA was made independent by Vespasian in 73, and NABATAEA was annexed separately by Trajan in 106; and subsequently became the province of Arabia.

A more serious blow to the status of the legate came around 194, when Emperor Septimius SEVERUS divided Syria into two provinces, Syria Cocle in the north and Syria Phoenice in the south. His action was merely a continuation of the provincial reform seen in Britain, born out of concern at too many legions being available to one man. He had just endured a civil war with Pescennius Niger, governor of Syria, and did not want to repeat the experience or face another crisis, such as Avidius Cassius presented in Marcus Aurelius' time.

The changes in provincial government did little to curtail the vibrant life of the province. Throughout the imperial epoch, Syria was the most intriguing example of generally positive Roman rule to be found anywhere. In marked contrast to Egypt, where the Romans pillaged all available financial and natural resources, Syria enjoyed three centuries of stable rule, careful imperial development of culture, and the long-term ideal of economic health. If Syria was remarkably different from Egypt, it was a stern rival in matters of industry and commerce. Linen weaving, agriculture (plums, nuts and other fruits), purple-dying and glass-blowing were the province's major source of locally produced income. Of immense value was the trade system that crossed the Syrian deserts to Antioch, TYRE, PALMYRA, PETRA and DAMASCUS. While Egypt had Alexandria, Syria had many other cities, especially Antioch and Palmyra, that were directly connected to PARTHIA, INDIA and the entire East. Syrian traders and merchants organized huge cara- I vans, and Roman soldiers were given the task of protecting them from local insurrections or desert nomads.

Despite the risk of being ordered to war, as happened throughout the 3rd century, service in Syria was a happy one for the legions. In the reign of TIBERIUS there were four legions: III Gallica, VI Ferrata, X Fretensis and XII Fulminata. By 74 A.D. the JEWISH WAR had been fought, and there remained the III Gallica and the IV Scythica. The I mid-2nd century saw three legions there: III Gallica, IV Scythica and XVI Flavia. The Roman troops became acclimatized to the friendly environment of Syria. In fact, in 69 A.D. Governor Mucianus convinced the legions that they should support Vespasian, with the story that VITELLIUS in Rome planned to replace them with the Rhine legions, sending the Syrian units to the dangerous forts of Germania-that was enough to have them march off to war.

What made Syria so desirable a posting was its interesting mix of Hellenic ways and natural charm. Because of the Seleucid tradition, Greek was both the language of domestic government and the culture imposed upon Syria. The Greek cities were given the right to have their own constitutions and had a certain autonomy. These privileges were kept by the emperors as a tool for introducing civilization to the millions of Syrians in the villages. The sheer number of villages, however, made the task virtually impossible. Aramaic persisted in the countryside, as did the native tongue in Egypt. Greek thus became the language of the educated, the upper classes and business. In cities and with the help of Rome, Greek did find fertile ground among the workers of the lower classes.

Unfortunately, details of the Roman administration and sociopolitical life in Syria are wanting. Clearly the presence of the legions had an impact, and Latin would have been spoken in those towns founded by Roman patronage. Most recruits from Syria, a very large group, would pick up some Latin through their years in the army, albeit a less sophisticated expertise.

The calm of Syria was shattered in the 3rd century A.D. In 255-256, SHAPUR i, king of Persia, stormed into Syria, marching to the gates of Antioch. After the defeat and capture of VALERIAN (259-260 A.D.), Shapur was back, this time netting Antioch itself. Although rescued by ODAENATH of Palmyra, Syria would never again feel safe. With the reforms of DIOCLETIAN the province became part of the diocese of Oriens, but never lost its place as a first-class possession of a weakening Empire. See also ARSACID DYNASTY; BAALBEK; BERYTUS; EMESA; GALERIUS; IAMBLICHUS; LUCIAN; MANICHAEISM; MAXIMUS OF TYRE; MESOPOTAMIA; NEOPLATONISM; NICOLAUS OF DAMASCUS; PALAESTINA; PAPINIAN; SASSINID DYNASTY; SOL INVICTUS; STOICISM; TATIAN; ULPIAN; VERUS, LUCIUS; ZENOBIA.

¤ SYRUS, PUBLILIUS (fl. 1st century B.C.) Syrian-born actor who came to ROME during the middle of the 1st century B.C. Originally a slave, he acquired his freedom mainly through sheer talent, subsequently becoming the leading performer of his age. Known to Julius CAESAR, Syrus defeated the venerable Roman Laberius in a theatrical competition sponsored by the dictator in 45. Specializing in mime, Syrus authored several notable mimes, including Murmurithon, Praised by such writers as SENECA the Elder and Petronius, his verses were used in education. Some of his sayings became quite famous, especially "the end justifies the means" and "honor among thieves."

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